•••• IS ' V •: -'- /*'• THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION FIRST edition, published in three volumes, 1768 — 1771. SECOND ten 1777—1784. THIRD eighteen 1788—1797. FOURTH twenty 1801 — 1810. FIFTH twenty 1815—1817. SIXTH twenty 1823 — 1824. SEVENTH twenty-one 1830—1842. EIGHTH twenty-two 1853—1860. NINTH twenty-five 1875—1889. TENTH ninth edition and eleven supplementary volumes, 1902 — 1903. ELEVENTH ,, published in twenty-nine volumes, 1910 — 1911. COPYRIGHT in all countries subscribing to the Bern Convention by THE CHANCELLOR, MASTERS AND SCHOLARS of the UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE All rights reserved THE ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE AND GENERAL INFORMATION ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVII TONALITE to VESUVIUS Cambridge, England: at the University Press New York, 35 West 32nd Street 191 1 E.3 Copyright, in the United States of America, 1911, by The Encyclopaedia Britannica Company INITIALS USED IN VOLUME XXVII. TO IDENTIFY INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS,1 WITH THE HEADINGS OF THE ARTICLES IN THIS VOLUME SO SIGNED. A. B. Go. ALFRED BRADLEY GOUGH, M.A., PH.D. f Sometime Casberd Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. English Lector at the T Trier. University of Kiel, 1896-1905. I A. C. S. ALGERNON CHARLES SWINBURNE. / Tourneur CvrtI See the biographical article: SWINBURNE, ALGERNON CHARLES. A. E. H. L. AUGUSTUS EDWARD HOUGH LOVE, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S. f Sedleian Professor of Natural Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Secretary J Variafinnc r-,in,,i,,c «f to the London Mathematical Society. Hon. Fellow of Queen's College, Oxford ; 1 DS> LalCl Ot' formerly Fellow of St John's College, Cambridge. A. F. L. ARTHUR FRANCIS LEACH, M.A. [" Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple. Charity Commissioner for England and Wales. J JTJ-I M!OI._I..C Formerly Assistant Secretary to the Board of Education. Fellow of All Souls 1 UOal> nlcnolas- College, Oxford, 1874-1881. Author of English Schools at the Reformation; &c. A. F. P. ALBERT FREDERICK POLLARD, M.A., F.R.HisT.S. f Professor of English History in the University of London. Fellow of All Souls J College, Oxford. Assistant Editor of the Dictionary of National Biography, 1893- | Vermigli, Pietro Martire. 1901. Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1892; Arnold Prizeman, 1898. Author of England under the Protector Somerset ; Henry VIII. ; Life of Thomas Cranmer ; &c. *• A. Ge. SIR ARCHIBALD GEIKIE, K.C.B. /Vesuvius (in fiarti See the biographical article: GEIKIE, SIR ARCHIBALD. I Vl 5 (tn pa">- A. Go.* REV. ALEXANDER GORDON, M.A. f Unitarianism; Lecturer on Church History in the University of Manchester. \ Valdes, Juan de. A. H. K. AUGUSTUS HENRY KEANE, LL.D., F.R.G.S., F.R.ANTHROP.INST. Emeritus Professor of Hindustani at University College, London. Author of -I Tripoli: North, Africa (m pan); Ethnology; Man Past and Present; The World's Peoples; &c. I Ural-Altaic. A. H.-S. SIR A. HOUTUM-SCHINDLER, C.I.E. J IT i L- f General in the Persian Army. Author of Eastern Persian Irak. | unuia, Lan A. J. ALEXANDER JOHNSTON. / ¥I .. See the biographical article : JOHNSTON, ALEXANDER. \ Umted States: Sttt"? W»JMK A. J. G. REV. ALEXANDER JAMES GRIEVE, M.A., B.D. r Professor of New Testament and Church History, Yorkshire United Independent J „ , Cf / • .-, College, Bradford. Sometime Registrar of Madras University, and Member of ] ursula> M (.** Part>- Mysore Educational Service. A. J. L. ANDREW JACKSON LAMOUREUX. Librarian, College of Agriculture, Cornell University. Editor of the Rio News J Venezuela: Geography and (Rio de Janeiro), 1879-1901. [ Statistics. A. L. ANDREW LANG. f See the biographical article: LANG, ANDREW. \ Totemism. A. Lo. AUGUSTE LONGNON. r Professor at the College de France, Paris. Director of the Ecole des Hautes Etudes. Tr-nvnc- r/,,,«/c „/ TV™ Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Livre des vassaux du Comti de Cham- J ,, pagne et de Brie; Geographie de la Gaule au VI siecle; Atlas historique de la France } Vermancjols. depuis Cesar jusqu'a nos jours ; &c. A. M.* REV. ALLAN MENZIES, M.A., D.D. r Professor of Divinity and Biblical Criticism, St Mary's College, St Andrews. Author J United Free Church Of Scotland. of History of Religion ; &c. Editor of Review of Theology and Philosophy. A. M.-Fa. ALFRED MOREL-FATIO. r Professor of Romance Languages at the College de France, Paris. Member of the J yega Carpio (in part). Institute of France; Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Secretary of the Ecole 1 des Chartes, 1885-1906. Author of L'Espagne au XVI' et au XVII' siecles. [ 1 A complete list, showing all individual contributors, appears in the final volume. v VI INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES A. N. A. P. H. A. R. B. A. Sp. A. Sy. A. W. H.* A. W. R. B. M. B. R. r Toucan; Touracou; ALFRED NEWTON, F.R.S. J Tree-creeper; Trogon; See the biographical article: NEWTON, ALFRED. Tropic-bird; Trumpeter; I Turkey; Turnstone. ALFRED PETER HILLIER, M.D., M.P. (~ Author of South African Studies; The Commonweal; &c. Served in Kaffir War, 1878-1879. Partner with Dr L. S. Jameson in South Africa till 1896. Member of i Transvaal: History (in part). Reform Committee, Johannesburg, and political prisoner at Pretoria, 1895-1896. M.P. for the Hitchin Division of Herts, 1910. THE REV. AUGUSTUS ROBERT BUCKLAND, M.A. [ Secretary of the Religious Tract Society, London. Morning Preacher, Foundling -j Tract: Tract Societies. Hospital, London. Author of The Heroic in Missions ; &c. L ARCHIBALD SHARP. Consulting Engineer and Chartered Patent Agent. ARTHUR SYMONS. See the biographical article: SYMONS, ARTHUR. ARTHUR WILLIAM HOLLAND. Formerly Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Bacon Scholar of Gray's Inn, 1900. Tricycle. Verlaine, Paul. Utrecht, Treaty of. Vaseline. B. W. G. C. A. C. C. A. S. C. B. P. C. C. W. C. D. W. C. El. C. F. A. C. H. Ha. C. J. L. C. M. C* K. D* ALEXANDER WOOD RENTON, M.A., LL.B. J _ . -,.,,/. rt Puisne Judge of the Supreme Court of Ceylon. Editor of Encyclopaedia of the Laws ] *raae marKS \m part), of England. BRANDER MATTHEWS, A.M., LL.D., LITT.D., D.C.L. f Professor of Dramatic Literature, Columbia University, New York. President of I Twain, Mark. the Modern Language Association of America (1910). Author of French Dramatists | of the iQth Century ; &c. I SIR BOVERTON REDWOOD, D.Sc., F.R.S. (Edin.), F.I.C., Assoc.lNST.C.E., M.lNST.M.E. Adviser on Petroleum to the Admiralty, Home Office, India Office, Corporation of London, and Port of London Authority. President of the Society of Chemical Industry. Member of the Council of the Chemical Society. Member of Council of the Institute of Chemistry. Author of Cantor Lectures on Petroleum; Petroleum and its Products ; Chemical Technology ; &c. BENEDICT WILLIAM GINSBURG, M.A., LL.D. St Catharine's College, Cambridge. Barrister-at-Law of the Inner Temple. J Tonnage. Formerly Editor of The Navy, and Secretary of the Royal Statistical Society. 1 Author of Hints on the Legal Duties of Shipmasters ; &c. CHARLES ARTHUR CONANT. Member of Commission on International Exchange of U.S., 1903. Treasurer, -j Trust Company. Morton Trust Co., New York, 1902-1906. Author of History of Modern Banks I of Issue; The Principles of Money and Banking; &c. REV, CHARLES ANDERSON SCOTT, M.A. Dunn Professor of the New Testament, Theological College of the Presbyterian Church of England, Cambridge. Author of Ulfilas, Apostle of the Goths; &c. CATHERINE BEATRICE PHILLIPS (MRS W. ALISON PHILLIPS). Associate of Bedford College, London. Ulfilas. Unicorn. CHARLES CRAWFORD WHINERY, A.M. f United States: History (in Cornell University. Assistant Editor nth Edition of the Encyclopaedia Britannica. \ part). HON. CARROLL DAVIDSON WRIGHT. See the biographical article: WRIGHT, CARROLL DAVIDSON. SIR CHARLES NORTON EDGCUMBE ELIOT, K.C.M.G., LL.D., D.C.L. Vice-Chancellor of Sheffield University. Formerly Fellow of Trinity College, Oxford. H.M.'s Commissioner and Commander-in-Chief for the British East Africa Protectorate; Agent and Consul-General at Zanzibar; Consul-General for German East Africa, 1900-1904. CHARLES FRANCIS ATKINSON. Formerly Scholar of Queen's College, Oxford. Captain, 1st City of London (Royal Fusiliers). Author of The Wilderness and Cold Harbor. CARLTON HUNTLEY HAYES, A.M., PH.D. Assistant Professor of History in Columbia University, New York.. Member of the American Historical Association. SIR CHARLES JAMES LYALL, K.C.S.I., C.I.E., LL.D. (Edin.). Secretary, Judicial and Public Department, India Office, London. Fellow of I King's College, London. Secretary to Government of India in Home Department, •{ Tulsi Das. 1889-1894. Chief Commissioner, Central Provinces, India, 1895-1898. Author of Translations of Ancient Arabic Poetry; &c. CARL THEODOR MIRBT, D.Tn. f Trent, Council of; Professor of Church History in the University of Marburg. Author of Publizistik -| Ultramontanism; im Zeitalter Gregor VII. ; Quellen zur Geschichle des Papstthums ; &c. Vatican Council The. CHARLES RAYMOND BEAZLEY, M.A., D.Lixr., F.R.G.S., F.R.HiST.S. f Professor of Modern History in the University of Birmingham. Formerly Fellow Varthema, LudoviCO di; of Merton College, Oxford, and University Lecturer in the History of Geography. H v«, • A™ Lothian Prizeman, Oxford, 1889. Lowell Lecturer, Boston, 1908. Author of VesPuccl> AmengO. Henry the Navigator; The Dawn of Modern Geography; &c. Trade Unions: United Slates. Turks. ("Transvaal: History (in part); 4 Turenne, Vicomte de; I Uniforms. J Truce of God; \ Urban II.-VI. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES vii C. W. W. SIR CHARLES WILLIAM WILSON, K.C.B., K.C.M.G., F.R.S. (1836-1907). f Major-General, Royal Engineers. Secretary to the North American Boundary J . . , Commission. .Director-General of the Ordnance Survey, 1886-1894. Director- j v*n: Turkey (in part). General of Military Education, 1895-1898. Author of From Korti to Khartoum; I Life of Lord Clive ; &c. D. B. Ma. DUNCAN BLACK MACDONALD, M.A., D.D. Professor of Semitic Languages, Hartford Theological Seminary, Hartford, Conn. J Author of Development of Muslim Theology, Jurisprudence and Constitutional 1 Theory; Selections from Ibn Khaldun; Religious Attitude and Life in Islam; &c. I D. C. B. DEMETRIUS CHARLES BOULGER. Author of England and Russia in Central Asia; History of China; Life of Gordon;} Tnurnai India in the loth Century; History of Belgium; Belgian Life in Town and Country; \ &c. D. C. G. DANIEL COIT OILMAN. J Universities- United See the biographical article : GILMAN, DANIEL COIT. \ um D. (X T. DAVID CROAL THOMSON. J Formerly Editor of the Art Journal. Author of The Brothers Maris; The Barbizon ) Troyon, Constant. School of Painters ; Life of " Phiz " ; Life of Bewick ; &c. D. F. T. DONALD FRANCIS TOVEY. f Author of Essays in Musical Analysis: comprising The Classical Concerto, The\ Variations. Goldberg Variations, and analyses of many other classical works. D. G. H. DAVID GEORGE HOGARTH, M.A. Keeper of the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford, and Fellow of Magdalen College. Tralles; Fellow of the British Academy. Excavated at Paphos, 1888; Naucratis, 1899 and 4 Tripoli: Syria; 1903; Ephesus, 1904-1905; Assiut, 1906-1907. Director, British School at Trov and Trnad (in barti Athens, 1897-1900. Director, Cretan Exploration Fund, 1899. D. H. DAVID HANNAY. f Toulon; Formerly British Vice-Consul at Barcelona. Author of Short History of the Royal < Tourville, Comte de; Navy; Life of Emilia Castelar; &c. L Trafalgar, Battle of. E. B.* ERNEST CHARLES FRANCOIS BABELON. Professor at the College de France. Keeper of the Department of Medals and Antiquities at the Bibliotheque Nationale. Member of the Academic des In- J Utica. scriptions et Belles Lettres, Paris. Chevalier of the Legion of Honour. Author of Descriptions Historiques des Monnaies de la Republique Romaine; Traites des Monnaies Grecques et Romaines ; Catalogue des Camees de la Bibliotheque Nationale. E. C. B. RT. REV. EDWARD CUTHBERT BUTLER, O.S.B., M.A., D.Lrra. J T . J Abbot of Downside Abbey, Bath. Author of " The Lausiac History of Palladius," | * in Cambridge Texts and Studies, vol. vi. L Vallombrosians. E. E. A. ERNEST E. AUSTEN. J Assistant in the Department of Zoology, Natural History Museum, South 1 Tsetse-fly. Kensington. E. F. S. EDWARD FAIRBROTHER STRANGE. Assistant Keeper, Victoria and Albert Museum, South Kensington. Member of •< Utamaro. Council, Japan Society. Author of numerous works on art subjects. Joint -editor of Bell's " Cathedral " Series. I Topelius, Zakris; Triolet; E. G. EDMUND GOSSE, LL.D., D.C.L. I Troubadour; Trouvere; See the biographical article: GOSSE, EDMUND. j Usk, Thomas; [ Vers de Soeiete; Verse. E. Ga. EMILE GARCKE, M.lNST.E.E. c Managing Director of the British Electric Traction Co., Ltd. Author of Manual of ^ Tramway. Electrical Undertakings; &c. [ E. H. M. ELLIS HOVELL MINNS, M.A. f University Lecturer in Palaeography, Cambridge. Lecturer and Assistant Librarian •( Tyras. at Pembroke College, Cambridge. Formerly Fellow of Pembroke College. E. J. W. G. ELIAS JOHN WILKINSON GIBB. f Turkev. jiteraiure Translator of several Turkish books. \ * ' E. K. C. EDMUND KERCHEVER CHAMBERS. Assistant Secretary, Board of Education. Sometime Scholar of Corpus Christ! College, Oxford. Chancellor's English Essayist, 1891. Author of The Medieval J. Vaughan Thomas. Stage. Editor of the "Red Letter" Shakespeare; Donne's Poems; Vaughan's Poems. Ed. M. EDUARD MEYER, PH.D., D.LITT., LL.D. f Professor of Ancient History in the University of Berlin. Author of Ge Tndymite; Vanadinite; [ Vesuvianite. Tuscany: History; Vespers, Sicilian. MOSES CASTER, PH.D. /Tourneur, Cyril: Introduction \ and Bibliography. SEb VjAS'l'EKj rH.JJ. r Chief Rabbi of the Sephardic Communities of England. Vice- President, Zionist Congress, 1898, 1899, 1900. Ilchester Lecturer at Oxford on Slavonic and Byzantine J Vacarescu. Literature, 1886 and 1891. Author of A New Hebrew Fragment of Ben-Sira; The ' Hebrew Version of the Secretum Secretorum of Aristotle. { MARCUS NIEBUHR TOD, M.A. r Fellow and Tutor of Oriel College, Oxford. University Lecturer in Epigraphy. J Vaphio. Joint-author of Catalogue of the Sparta Museum. MAXIMILIAN OTTO BISMARCK CASPARI, M.A. r Tracm-s. Reader in Ancient History at London University. Lecturer in Greek at Birmingham J ¥T . . ' , . . ... University, 1905-1908. ' [ Umbna (Ancient). NEWTON DENNISON MERENESS, A.M., PH.D. Author of Maryland as a Proprietary Province. f United States: \ Flora. Fauna and Xll 0. Ba. P. A. K. P. C. M. P. C. Y. P. Gi. P. G. K. P. La. R. A.* R. A. S. R. C. J. R. D. S. R. I. P. R. J. M. R. K. D. R. L.* R. N. B. R. P. S. R. S. C. R. Tr. S. A. C. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES OSWALD BARRON, F.S.A. f Tournament- Editor of the Ancestor, 1002-1005. Hon. Genealogist to Standing Council of the-^ _ '., Honourable Society of the Baronetage. I Tudor (Faml PRINCE PETER ALEXEIVITCH KROPOTKIN. See the biographical article: KROPOTKIN, PRINCE P. A. Transbaikalia (in part}; Transcaspian Region (in part) ; Turgai (in part); Turkestan (in part); Ufa (Government) (in part); Ural Mountains (in part). PETER CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., F.R.S., F.Z.S., D.Sc., LL.D. f Secretary of the Zoological Society of London. University Demonstrator in Com- J Variation and Selection; parative Anatomy and Assistant to Linacre Professor at Oxford, 1888-1891. 1 Vertebrata. Author of Outlines of Biology; Sec. PHILIP CHESNEY YORKE, M.A. / yane gjr g Magdalen College, Oxford. Editor of Letters of Princess Elizabeth of England. PETER GILES, M.A., LL.D., Lrrr.D. f Fellow and Classical Lecturer of Emmanuel College, Cambridge, and University J **. Reader in Comparative Philology. Formerly Secretary of the Cambridge Philo- 1 V. logical Society. I PAUL GEORGE KONODY. f Van Dyck (in part)- Art Critic of the Observer and the Daily Mail. Formerly Editor of the Artist. •{ - Author of The Art of Walter Crane; Velasquez: Life and Work; &c. PHILIP LAKE, M.A., F.G.S. r Lecturer on Physical and Regional Geography in Cambridge University. Formerly of the Geological Survey of India. Author of Monograph of British Cambrian Trilobites. Translator and Editor of Kayser's Comparative Geology. Venezuela: Geology. ROBERT ANCHEL. Archivist of the Department de 1'Eure. RICHARD ALEXANDER STREATFEILD. f Assistant in the Department of Printed Books, British Museum. Musical Critic of 4 Verdi, Guiseppe. the Daily Graphic. Author of Masters of Italian Music ; The Opera ; &c. SIR RICHARD CLAVERHOUSE JEBB, LL.D., D.C.L., Lnr.D. See the biographical article: JEBB, SIR RICHARD C. ROLLIN D. SALISBURY, A.M., LL.D. r' Geologist in charge of Pleistocene Geology of New Jersey. Dean of Ogden (Grad.) | United States: Geology (in School of Science and Head of the Department of Geography in the University of 1 part). Chicago. Vendee, Wars of the. < Troy and Troad (in part). REGINALD INNES POCOCK, F.Z.S. Superintendent of the Zoological Gardens, London. | Trilobites. f Tone, Theobald Wolfe; Formerly Editor of the St James's J Tyler, Wat; [ Ulster, Earls of. ROBERT KENNAWAY DOUGLAS. r Formerly Keeper of Oriental Printed Books and MSS. at the British Museum; and Professor of Chinese, King's College, London. Author of The Language and Lilera- H Tseng Kuo-fan. lure of China; &c. RONALD JOHN MCNEILL, M.A. Christ Church, Oxford. Barrister-at-law. Gazette (London). SIR RICHARD LYDEKKER, M.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., F.Z.S. Member of the Staff of the Geological Survey of India, 1874-1882. Author of Toxodontia; Catalogues of Fossil Mammals, Reptiles and Birds in the British Museum; The Deer \ Tylopoda; of All Lands; The Game Animals of Africa; &c. i Uneulata ROBERT NISBET BAIN (d. 1909). Assistant Librarian, British Museum, 1883-1909. Political History of Denmark, Norway and Sweden, Author of Scandinavia: {Torkenskjold, Peder; Torstensson, Count; Valdemar I., II. ana IV. of Denmark; Verboczy, Istvan. PHENE SPIERS, F.S.A., F.R.I.B.A. Formerly Master of the Architectural School, Royal Academy, London. Past President of Architectural Association. Associate and Fellow of King's College, . London. Corresponding Member of the Institute of France. Editor of Fergusson's History of Architecture. Author of Architecture: East and West; &c. -Tower; • Tracery; Triumphal Arch; Vault. ROBERT SEYMOUR CONWAY, M.A., D.Lnr. (Cantab.). r Professor of Latin and Indo-European Philology in the University of Manchester. Veneti; Formerly Professor of Latin in University College, Cardiff; and Fellow of Gonville ] Voctini' and Caius College, Cambridge. Author of The Italic Dialects. ROLAND TRUSLOVE, M.A. Fellow, Dean and Lecturer in Classics at Worcester College, Oxford. S Troyes. STANLEY ARTHUR COOKE, M.A. f Editor for the Palestine Exploration Fund. Lecturer in Hebrew and Syriac, and formerly Fellow, Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge. Examiner in Hebrew J Tree-Worship' and Aramaic, London University, 1904-1908. Author of Glossary of Aramaic] Ti-~-ai, Inscriptions; The Laws of Moses and the Code of Hammurabi; Critical Notes on uzzlan> Old Testament History; Religion of Ancient Palestine; &c. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES Xlll S. M. C. S. M. E.-W. S. N. T. As. SYDNEY MONCKTON COPEMAN, M.A., M.D., F.R.C.P., M.R.C.S., F.R.S. Medical Inspector to H.M. Local Government Board, London. Medical Lecturer on Public Health at Westminster Hospital. Lt.-Col. and Divisional Sanitary , Officer, 1st London Division, Territorial Force. Milroy Lecturer, Royal College of I Vaccination. Physicians, London, 1898. Author of Vaccination, its Natural History and Patho- logy; &c. SIR SYDNEY MAROW EARDLEY-WILMOT. Rear-Admiral (retired). Commanded H.M.S. " Dolphin " in Red Sea, 1885-1886, j and assisted in the defence of Suakin. Superintendent of Ordnance Stores, "j Torpedo. 1902—1909. Author of Life of Vice- Admiral Lord Lyons; Our Navy for a Thousand Years ; &c. [ SIMON NEWCOMB, LL.D., D.Sc. See the biographical article : NEWCOMB, SIMON. THOMAS ASHBY, M.A., D.LITT. Director of the British School of Archaeology at Rome. Formerly Scholar of f Uranus (Astronomy). I. Venus (Astronomy). Tortona; Trapani; Trasimene, Lake; Trebula; Turin; Turris Libisonis; Tuscany: Geography; Tusculum; Tyndaris; Christ Church, Oxford. Craven Fellow, 1897. Conington Prizeman, 1906. Member' of the Imperial German Archaeological Institute. graphy of the Roman Campagna. Author of The Classical Topo- T. A. A. T. A. I. T. C. C. T. E. H. T. F. C. T. H. T. S. T. Se. V. C.* V. M. W. A. B. C. W. A. He. W. A. P. W. Bo. THOMAS ANDREW ARCHER, M.A. Author of The Crusade of Richard I. ; &c. THOMAS ALLAN INGRAM, M.A., LL.D. Trinity College, Dublin. THOMAS CHROWDER CHAMBERLIN, A.M., PH.D., LL.D., Sc.D., F.G.S., F.A.A.S., &c. Professor and Head of Department of Geology and Director of the Walker Museum, University of Chicago. Investigator of Fundamental Problems of Geology at the Carnegie Institute. Consulting Geologist, United States and Wisconsin .Geological Survey. Author of Geology of Wisconsin; General Treatise on Geology (with R. D. Salisbury) ; &c. THOMAS ERSKINE HOLLAND, M.A., D.C.L., LL.D., K.C. r Fellow of the British Academy. Fellow of All Souls College, Oxford. Professor of International Law and Diplomacy in the University of Oxford, 1874-1910. Bencher I Treaties; of Lincoln's Inn. Author of Studies in International Law; The Elements of Juris- 1 Vacarius. prudence ; A Iberici Gentilis de jure belli ; The Laws of War on Land; Neutral Duties in a Maritime War; &c. Udine; Umbria (Modern); Valeria Via; Varia; Vasto; Veii; Veleia; Velia; Velletri; Venafrum; Venusia; Vercelli; Verona (in part); Vesuvius (in part). Ursula, St (in part). •j Unemployment; Vagrancy. United States: Geology (in part). THEODORE FREYLINGHUYSEN COLLIER, PH.D. Assistant Professor of History, Williams College, Williamstown, Mass. THOMAS HODGKIN, D.C.L., Lixx.D. See the biographical article: HODGKIN, THOMAS. J Urban VII. and VIII. 4 Vandals (in part). THE RIGHT HONOURABLE LORD SHAW or DUNFERMLINE. Lord of Appeal. M.P. for Hawick District, 1892-1909. Lord Advocate for Scotland, -| Vergniaud, Pierre. 1905-1909. I THOMAS SECCOMBE, M.A. f Balliol College, Oxford. Lecturer in History, East London and Birkbeck Colleges, J vanhmo-h «ir Tnhn University of London. Stanhope Prizeman, Oxford, 1887. Assistant Editor of | V Dictionary of National Biography, 1891-1901. Author of The Age of Johnson; &c. l SIR VINCENT HENRY PENALVER CAILLARD. f Director of Vickers, Sons & Maxim, Ltd.; and the London, Chatham & Dover J Turkey: Geography and Railway. Formerly President of the Ottoman Public Debt Council, and Financial } (-,, t-'f- Representative of England, Holland and Belgium in Constantinople. Author of Imperial Fiscal Reform. VICTOR CHARLES MAHILLON. /Trombone (in part); Principal of the Conservatoire Royal deMusique at Brussels. Chevalier of the Legion | Trumpet (in part) of Honour. L REV. WILLIAM AUGUSTUS BREVOORT COOLIDGE, M.A., F.R.G.S. Fellow of Magdalen College, Oxford. Professor of English History, St David's College, Lampeter, 1880-1881. Author of Guide to Switzerland; The Alps in Nature and in History; &c. Editor of the Alpine Journal, 1880-1889. WILLIAM ABBOT HERDMAN, D.Sc., F.R.S. Professor of Natural History in the University of Liverpool. President of the Linnean Society, 1904. Author of Report upon the Tunicata collected during the Voyage of the " Challenger " ; &c. WALTER ALISON PHILLIPS, M.A. Formerly Exhibitioner of Merton College and Senior Scholar of St John's College, Oxford. Author of Modern Europe ; &c. WlLHELM BOUSSET, D.Tn. Professor of New Testament Exegesis in the University of Gottingen. Author of Das Wesen der Religion; The Antichrist Legend; &c. {Topfier, Rodolphe; Trent; Tschudi; Unterwalden; Uri; Valais; Var; Vaud. •\ Tunicata. Utrecht: Province (in part); Valet; Vavassor; Verona, Congress of; Vestments. j Valentinus and the [ Valentinians. XIV W. E. G. W. F. C. W. G.* W. L. F. W. MeD. W. MacD.* W. M. D. W. P. C. W. R. M. W. R. S. INITIALS AND HEADINGS OF ARTICLES SIR WILLIAM EDMUND GARSTIN, G.C.M.G. j Governing Director, Suez Canal Co. Formerly Inspector-General of Irrigation, J. Tsana (in part). Egypt, and Adviser to the Ministry of Public Works in Egypt. WILLIAM FEILDEN CRAIES, M.A. J Trade Marks (in part); Barrister-at-Law, Inner Temple. Lecturer on Criminal Law, King s College, 1 Treason; Trial; Venue. London. Editor of Archbold's Criminal Pleading (zyd edition). ALGeoloEist on 'H.M. Geological Survey. Author of The Gold-bearing Rocks of the S. \ Transvaal: Geology. m i ••«••.. .. i TTr _ _ iiT_ _ f A f..: T"7._ ^- — / — ,..• nf /~"f*fi1 ,IM A fnfil \/ftt'*>it'vi a • fvr- LjCOlOglSt On n.m. vjeuiogl^ill ouivcy. xrui" — "& - ;-~ Transvaal; Mineral Wealth of Africa; The Geology of Coal and Coal Mining; WALTER LYNWOOD FLEMING, A.M., Pn.D. Professor of History in Louisiana State University. Editor of Documentary History of Reconstruction ; &c. WILLIAM MCDOUGALL, M.A. Wilde Reader in Mental Philosophy in the University of Oxford. Formerly bellow of St John's College, Cambridge. WILLIAM MACDONALD, LL.D. Professor of American History in Brown University, Providence, R.I. 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Valentinian I.-II. Valerian. Valla, Lorenzo. Valladolid. Valtellina. Vanadium. Vanderbilt, Cornelius. Vane, Sir Henry. Vanilla. Vauban. Vaughan, Henry. Vauvenargues, Marquis de. Venezuela: History. Venus's Fly-trap. Verdun. Vermont. Vernet (Family). Verney (Family). Vernon, Edward. Versailles. Vespasian. ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA ELEVENTH EDITION VOLUME XXVII TONALITE, in petrology, a rock of the diorite class, first described from Monte Adamello near Tonale in the Eastern Alps. It may be described as a quartz-diorite containing biotite and hornblende in nearly equal proportions. The prin- cipal felspar is plagioclase, but orthoclase occurs also, usually in small amount. Those varieties which are rich in orthoclase, in addition to plagioclase, have been called quartz-monzonites or adamellites, but a better term is grano-diorite, which has been very generally adopted in America for rocks which are intermediate in character between the granites and the diorites. The hornblende of the diorites is green, sometimes with a tinge of brown; the biotite is always brown and strongly pleochroic. Often these two minerals are clustered together irregularly or in parallel growths. They have generally a fairly strong tendency to idiomorphism, but may sometimes enclose plagioclase fel- spar in ophitic manner. Both of them decompose to chlorite, epidote and carbonates. The plagioclase felspar, which may form more than one-half of the rock, is andesine or oligoclase; simple crystals are rare, the majority being complex growths with centres of felspar rich in lime, while in the external zones the proportion of soda felspar increases greatly. The inner portions have often well-defined, but very irregular, boundaries, and are sometimes sponge-like, with the cavities filled up with a later, more acid, deposit. This seems to indicate that growth has taken place in stages, alternating with periods when the crystallized felspar was eroded or partly dissolved. The ortho- clase sometimes forms irregular plates enclosing individuals of plagioclase. Quartz occurs both in irregular simple grains and as micropegmatite. Occasionally pale green pyroxene is visible in the centre of crystals of dark green hornblende. The accessory minerals apatite, magnetite and zircon are always present, and very common also are orthite in coffee-coloured zonal prisms practically always encircled by yellow epidote, and reddish-brown crystals of sphene, simple or twinned. In external appearance the tonalites are very like the granites but usually darker in colour. Tonalite-porphyrites often accom- pany them, having the same composition but with phenocrysts of felspar, quartz, hornblende and biotite in a fine-grained ground- mass. Veins and threads of fine grey rock, mainly composed of quartz and felspar, often intersect tonalite-masses and have been called tonalite-aplites, seeing that they bear the same relations to aplites as the aplites do to the granites. They contain more soda- lime felspar than the normal aplites. Towards their margins the larger alpine masses of tonalite often assume banded or gneissic facies, due apparently to movement during intrusion. XXVII. I In eastern Tirol another tonalite occurs at Rieserferner ; there is also a well-known mass of this rock near Traversella. In the south of Scotland (Galloway district) tonalites accompany hornblende- and biotite-granites, hornblende- and augite-diorites. The newer granites of the Highlands of Scotland in many places pass into tonalites, especially near their margins, and similar rocks occur in Ireland in a few places. Grano-diorites have been described from California, and rocks of very similar character occur in the Andes, Patagonia and the lesser Antilles. Tonalites are also said to be frequent among the igneous rocks of Alaska. (J. S. F.) TONAWANDA, a city of Erie county, New York, U.S.A., about ii m. by rail N. of Buffalo on the Niagara River at the mouth of Tonawanda Creek (opposite North Tonawanda), and on the Erie Canal. Pop. (1900), 7421, of whom 1834 were foreign-born; (1910 census), 8290. Tonawanda is served by the New York Central & Hudson River and the Erie railways, and is connected with Buffalo, Niagara Falls and Lockport by electric lines. The industries depend chiefly on electric power generated by the Niagara Falls, 11 m. distant. There are rolling- mills, planing-mills, ship-yards, and blast-furnaces, and among the manufactures are wooden ware, flour and paper. The surrounding region was the scene of hostilities during the Seven Years' War, and the War of 1812. The first permanent white settlement was made about 1809, and Tonawanda was in- corporated as a village in 1854 and was chartered as a city in 1903. The name of the city is an Indian word said to mean " swift water." TONBRIDGE [TUNBRIDGE], a market town in the Tonbridge or south-western parliamentary division of Kent, England, 295 m. S.S.E. of London by the South Eastern & Chatham railway. Pop. of urban district (1901), 12,736. It is situated on rising ground above the river Medway, which is crossed by a stone bridge erected in 1775. The church of St Peter and St Paul, chiefly Decorated and Perpendicular, with some portions of earlier date, was completely restored in 1879. There are remains of an ancient castle, consisting chiefly of a finely pre- served gateway, of the Early Decorated period, flanked by two round towers. The castle was formerly defended by three moats, one of them formed by the Medway. Tonbridge School was founded by Sir Andrew Judd, lord mayor of London in the time of Edward VI., and was rebuilt in 1865, remodelled in 1880, and extended subsequently. Ornamental articles of inlaid wood, called Tonbridge ware, chiefly sold at Tunbridge Wells, are largely manufactured. There are gunpowder mills on the banks of the Medway, and wool-stapling, brewing and TONDERN— TONE tanning are carried on. There is some traffic on the Medway, which is navigable for barges. Tonbridge owed its early importance to the castle built by Richard, earl of Clare, in the reign of Henry I. The castle was besieged by William Rufus, was taken by John in the wars with the barons, and again by Prince Edward, son of Henry III. After being in the possession of the earls of Clare and Hert- ford, and of the earls of Gloucester, it became the property of the Staffords, and on the attainder of the duke of Bucking- ham in the reign of Henry VIII. was taken by the Crown. It was dismantled during the Civil War. The lords of the castle had the right of attending the archbishops of Canterbury on state occasions as chief butlers. TONDERN, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Schleswig-Holstein, on the Widane, 8 m. from the North Sea at Hoyer, opposite the island of Sylt, and 42 m. by rail N.W. from Flensburg. Pop. (1900), 4244. Tondern was in early days a seaport, but since the reclamation of the marshes and the dredg- ing of the Widane navigation has ceased, and vessels load and unload at Hoyer, with which the place has direct railway com- munication. The trade consists chiefly in agricultural produce and cattle, and there is an important horse market. In the village of Galhus, lying about 4m. N., were discovered, in 1639 and 1734 respectively, two golden horns of the Scandi- navian period; these were stolen in 1802 from tne Museum of Northern Antiquities in Copenhagen, where they had been treasured, and have never been recovered. See Karstens, Die Stadt Tondern (Tondern, 1861). TONE, THEOBALD WOLFE (1763-1798), Irish rebel, the son of Peter Tone, a Dublin coachmaker, was born in Dublin on the aoth of June 1763. His grandfather was a small farmer in county Kildare, and his mother was the daughter of a captain in the merchant service. Though entered as a student at Trinity College, Dublin, Tone gave little attention to study, his inclination being for a military career; but after eloping with Matilda Witherington, a girl of sixteen, he took his degree in 1786, and read law in London at the Middle Temple and after- wards in Dublin, being called to the Irish bar in 1789. Though idle, Tone had considerable ability. Chagrined at finding no notice taken of a wild scheme for founding a military colony in the South Seas which he had submitted to Pitt, he turned to Irish politics. An able pamphlet attacking the administration of the marquess of Buckingham in 1790 brought him to the notice of the Whig club; and in September 1791 he wrote a remarkable essay over the signature " A Northern Whig," of which 10,000 copies are said to have been sold. The principles of the French Revolution were at this time being eagerly em- braced in Ireland, especially among the Presbyterians of Ulster, and two months before the appearance of Tone's essay a great meeting had been held in Belfast, where republican toasts had been drunk with enthusiasm, and a resolution in favour of the abolition of religious disqualifications had given the first sign of political sympathy between the Roman Catholics and the Protestant dissenters of the north. The essay of "A Northern Whig " emphasized the growing breach between the Whig patriots like Flood and Grattan, who aimed at Catholic emancipation and parliamentary reform without disloyalty to the connexion with England, and the men who desired to establish a separate Irish republic. Tone expressed in his pamphlet unqualified contempt for the constitution which Grattan had so triumphantly extorted from the English govern- ment in 1782; and, himself a Protestant, he urged co-operation between the different religious sects in Ireland as the only means of obtaining complete redress of Irish grievances. In October 1791 Tone converted these ideas into practical policy by founding, in conjunction with Thomas Russell (1767- 1803), Napper Tandy (q.v.) and others, the society of the " United Irishmen." The original purpose of this society was no more than the formation of a political union between Roman Catholics and Protestants, with a view to obtaining a liberal measure of parliamentary reform; it was only when that object appeared to be unattainable by constitutional methods that the majority of the members adopted the more uncompromising opinions which Wolfe Tone held from the first, and conspired to establish an Irish republic by armed rebellion. Tone himself admitted that with him hatred of England had always been " rather an instinct than a principle," though until his views should become more generally accepted in Ireland he was prepared to work for reform as distinguished from revolution. But he desired to root out the popular respect for the names of Charlemont and Grattan, and to transfer to more violent leaders the conduct of the national movement. Grattan was a reformer and a patriot without a tincture of democratic ideas; Wolfe Tone was a revolutionary whose principles were drawn from the French Convention. Grattan's political philosophy was allied to that of Edmund Burke; Tone was a disciple of Danton and Thomas Paine. Democratic principles were gaining ground among the Roman Catholics as well as the Presbyterians. A quarrel between the moderate and the more advanced sections of the Roman Catholic Committee led, in December 1791, to the secession of sixty-eight of the former, led by Lord Kenmare; and the direction of the committee then passed to more violent leaders, of whom the most prominent was John'Keogh, a Dublin tradesman. The active participation of the Roman Catholics in the movement of the United Irishmen was strengthened by the appointment of Tone as paid secretary of the Roman Catholic Committee in the spring of 1792. When the legality of the Roman Catholic Convention in 1792 was called in question by the government, Tone drew up for the committee a statement of the case on which a favourable opinion of counsel was obtained; and a sum of £1500 with a gold medal was voted to Tone by the Convention when it dissolved itself in April 1793. Burke and Grattan were anxious that provision should be made for the education of Irish Roman Catholic priests at home, to preserve them from the contagion of Jacobinism in France; Wolfe Tone, " with an incomparably juster forecast," as Lecky observes, " advocated the same measure for exactly opposite reasons." He rejoiced that the breaking up of the French schools by the revolution had rendered necessary the foundation of Maynooth College, which he foresaw would draw the sympathies of the clergy into more democratic channels. In 1794 the United Irishmen, persuaded that their scheme of universal suffrage and equal electoral districts was not likely to be accepted by any party in the Irish parliament, began to found their hopes on a French invasion. An English clergyman named William Jackson, a man of infamous notoriety who had long lived in France, where he had imbibed revolutionary opinions, came to Ireland to negotiate between the French committee of public safety and the United Irishmen. For this emissary Tone drew up a memorandum on the state of Ireland, which he described as ripe for revolution; the paper was betrayed to the government by an attorney named Cockayne to whom Jackson had impru- dently disclosed his mission; and in April 1794 Jackson was arrested on a charge of treason. Several of the leading United Irishmen, including Reynolds and Hamilton Rowan, immediately fled the country; the papers of the United Irishmen were seized; and for a time the organization was broken up. Tone, who had not attended meetings of the society since May 1793, remained in Ireland till after the trial and suicide of Jackson in April 1795. Having friends among the government party, including members of the Beresford family, he was enabled to make terms with the government, and in return for information as to what had passed between Jackson, Rowan and himself he was per- mitted to emigrate to America, where he arrived in May 1795. Taking up his residence at Philadelphia, he wrote a few months later to Thomas Russell expressing unqualified dislike of the American people, whom he was disappointed to find no more truly democratic in sentiment and no less attached to order and authority than the English; he described George Washington as a " high-flying aristocrat," and he found the aristocracy of money in America still less to his liking than the European aristocracy of birth. Tone did not feel himself bound in honour by his compact TONGA with the government at home to abstain from further conspiracy ; and finding himself at Philadelphia in the congenial company of Reynolds, Rowan and Napper Tandy, he undertook a mission to Paris to persuade the French government to send an expedi- tion to invade Ireland. In February 1796 he arrived in Paris and had interviews with De La Croix and L. N. M. Carnot, who were greatly impressed by his energy, sincerity and ability. A commission was given him as adjutant-general in the French army, which he hoped might protect him from the penalty of treason in the event of capture by the English; though he himself claimed the authorship of a proclamation said to have been issued by the United Irishmen, enjoining that all Irishmen taken with arms in their hands in the British service should be instantly shot ; and he supported a project for landing a thousand criminals in England, who were to be commissioned to burn Bristol and commit any other atrocity in their power. He drew up two memorials representing that the landing of a considerable French force in Ireland would be followed by a general rising of the people, and giving a detailed account of the condition of the country. The French directory, which possessed informa- tion from Lord Edward Fitzgerald (q.v.) and Arthur O'Connor confirming Tone, prepared to despatch an expedition under Hoche. On the 15th of December 1796 the expedition, consist- ing of forty-three sail and carrying about 15,000 men with a large supply of war material for distribution in Ireland, sailed from Brest. Tone, who accompanied it as " Adjutant-general Smith," had the greatest contempt for the seamanship of the French sailors, which was amply justified by the disastrous result of the invasion. Returning to France without having effected anything, Tone served for some months in the French army under Hoche; and in June 1797 he took part in prepara- tions for a Dutch expedition to Ireland, which was to be sup- ported by the French. But the Dutch fleet was detained in the Texel for many weeks by unfavourable weather, and before it eventually put to sea in October, only to be crushed by Duncan in the battle of Camperdown, Tone had returned to Paris; and Hoche, the chief hope of the United Irishmen, was dead. Bona- parte, with whom Tone had several interviews about this time, was much less disposed than Hoche had been to undertake in earnest an Irish expedition; and when the rebellion broke out in Ireland in 1798 he had started for Egypt. When, therefore, Tone urged the directory to send effective assistance to the Irish rebels, all that could be promised was a number of small raids to descend simultaneously on different points of the Irish coast. One of these under Humbert succeeded in landing a force in Killala Bay, and gained some success in Connaught before it was subdued by Lake and Cornwallis, Wolfe Tone's brother Matthew being captured, tried by court-martial, and hanged; a second, accompanied by Napper Tandy (q.v.), came to disaster on the coast of Donegal; while Wolfe Tone took part in a third, under Admiral Bompard, with General Hardy in command of a force of about 3000 men, which encountered an English squadron near Lough Swilly on the i2th of October 1798. Tone, who was on board the " Hoche," refused Bompard's offer of escape in a frigate before the action, and was taken prisoner when the " Hoche " was forced to surrender. When the prisoners were landed a fortnight later Sir George Hill recognized Tone in the French adjutant-general's uniform. At his trial by court-martial in Dublin, Tone made a manly straightforward speech, avowing his determined hostility to England and his design " by fair and open war to procure the separation of the two countries," and pleading in virtue of his status as a French officer to die by the musket instead of the rope. He was, however, sentenced to be hanged on the I2th of November; but on the nth he cut his throat with a penknife, and on the igth of November 1798 he died of the wound. Although Wolfe Tone had none of the attributes of greatness, " he rises," says Lecky, "far above the dreary level of common- place which Irish conspiracy in general presents. The tawdry and exaggerated rhetoric; the petty vanity and jealousies; the weak sentimentalism; the utter incapacity for proportioning means to ends, and for grasping the stern realities of things, which so commonly disfigure the lives and conduct even of the more honest members of his class, were wholly alien to his nature. His judgment of men and things was keen, lucid and masculine, and he was alike prompt in decision and brave in action." In his later years he overcame the drunkenness that was habitual to him in youth ; he developed seriousness of character and unsel- fish devotion to what he believed was the cause of patriotism; and he won the respect of men of high character and capacity in France and Holland. His journals, which were written for his family and intimate friends, give a singularly interesting and vivid picture of life in Paris in the time of the directory. They were published after his death by his son, William Theobald Wolfe Tone (1791-1828), who was educated by the French government and served with some distinction in the armies of Napoleon, emigrating after Waterloo to America, where he died, in New York City, on the roth of October 1828. See Life of Theobald Wolfe Tone by himself, continued by his son, with his political writings, edited by W. T. Wolfe Tone (2 vols., Washington, 1826), another edition of which is entitled Auto- biography of Theobald Wolfe Tone, edited with introduction by R. Barry O'Brien (2 vols., London, 1893) ; R. R. Madden, Lives of the United Irishmen (7 vols., London, 1842); Alfred Webb, Com- pendium of Irish Biography (Dublin, 1878) ; W. E. H. Lecky, History of Ireland in the Eighteenth Century, vols. iii., iv., v. (cabinet ed., 5 vols., London, 1892). (R. J. M.) TONGA, or FRIENDLY ISLANDS (so called by Captain Cook), an archipelago in the South Pacific Ocean, about 350 m. S.S.W. of Samoa and 250 m. E.S.E. of Fiji. The long chain of islands, numbering about 150, though with a collective land area of only 385 sq. m., extends from 18° 5' to 22° 29' S. and 174° to 176° 10' W., and is broken into three groups, viz. the Tonga to the south, Hapai (which again is divided into three clusters) in the centre and Vavau to the north. The largest island is Tongatabu (the Sacred Tonga, Tasman's Amsterdam) in the southern group, measuring about 25 by 10 m., and 165 sq. m. in area, which contains the capital, Nukualofa. The vegetation is rich and beautiful, but the scenery tame, the land seldom rising above 60 ft.; Eua (Tasman's Middelburg), 9 m. south-east and 67 sq. m. in area, is 1078 ft. in extreme height, and much more picturesque, being diversified by rocks and woods. Vavau, in the northern group, is 55 sq. m. in extent and 300 ft. high. Next to these come the coral islands Nomuka and Lifuka in the Hapai group; Tofua, 2846 ft., Late or Lette, 1800 ft. and Kao, 3020 ft. high, which are volcanic and smaller. The numerous islets of the central group are very fertile. It is along the western side of the northern half of the chain that the line of volcanic action is apparent; the islands here (of which some are active volcanoes) are lofty. To the east the whole chain is bounded by a profound trough in the ocean bed, which extends south- westward, east of the Kermadec Islands, towards New Zealand. The majority of the Tonga Islands, however, are level, averaging 40 ft. high, with hills rising to 600 ft.; their sides are generally steep. The surface is covered with a rich mould unusual in coral islands, mixed towards the sea with sand, and having a substratum of red or blue clay. The soil is thus very productive, although water is scarce and bad. Barrier reefs are rare; fringing reefs are numerous, except on the east side, which is nearly free, and there are many small isolated reefs and volcanic banks among the islands. If the reefs impede navigation they form some good harbours. The best is on the south-western side of Vavau; another is on the north of Tongatabu. Earthquakes are not infrequent. From 1845 to 1857 volcanic eruptions were very violent, and islands once fertile were devastated and nearly destroyed. A new island rose from the sea, and was at once named " Wesley," but disappeared again. In 1886 there was a serious volcanic eruption in the outlying island of Niuafoou, and at the same time Falcon Reef, normally awash at high water, discharged sufficient scoriae and pumice to form a new island 50 ft. high. In 1898 the island had been washed away, but in 1900 H.M.S. " Porpoise " found that a solid core of black rock had been extruded 6 ft. above high water. All the volcanoes in the group were then quiescent. Geology. — The line of volcanic action extends along the western side of the northern half of the chain. Some of the islands are built of TONGA volcanic rocks alone; such are Hongu-tonga and Hongu-hapai, which appear to be fragments of a single ancient crater, Tofua, Kao, Late, Metis, Amargua and Falcon Island. The lava is a basic au'gite- andesite. Another group of islands consists of elevated masses of submarine volcanic deposits, upon some of which coral-reef limestone forms a more or less complete covering; such are Tonumeia and the Nomuka group (Mango, Tonua, Nomuka-iki). All the volcanic rocks of these islands are submarine stratified tuffs which are penetrated here and there by andesite or diabase dikes. The Vavau group consists entirely of coral limestone, which is occasionally crystalline, and contains stalactitic caves of great beauty. Climate, Flora, Fauna. — The climate is healthy for Europeans, being dry and cool as compared with that of Samoa and Fiji. There are frequent alternations of temperature, which averages 75° to 77° F., though considerably higher in the wet season. Cool south- east trade winds blow, sometimes with great violence, from April to December. During the rest of the year the winds blow from west-north-west and north, with rain and occasional destructive hurricanes. A cyclone which devastated Vavau in April 1900 was the most destructive ever recorded in the group, but hurricanes are rare. The average rainfall for the year is about 80 ins. The vegetation is similar to that of Fiji, but more definitely Indo-Malayan in character; it embraces all the plants of the groups to the east with many that are absent there. Ferns abound*, some of them peculiar, and tree ferns on the higher islands, and all the usual fruit trees and cultivated plants of the Pacific are found. There are several kinds of valuable timber trees. The only indigenous land mammalia are a small rat and a few curious species of bats. The dog and the pig were no doubt introduced by man. Of birds some 30 kinds are known, an owl being the only bird of prey; parrots, pigeons, kingfishers, honey-suckers, rails, ducks, and other water birds are numerous. There are snakes and small lizards, but no frogs or toads. Of insects there are relatively few kinds; but ants, beetles and mosquitoes abound. The fishes, of an Indo-Malay type, are varied and numerous. Turtle and sea-snakes abound, as do mollusca, of which a few are peculiar, and zoophytes. Inhabitants. — The population of the archipelago is about 19,000, of whom about 370 are whites or half-castes. The natives, a branch of the Polynesian race, are the most progressive and most intellectual in the Pacific Islands, except the Hawaiians. They have exercised an influence over distant neighbours, especially in Fiji, quite out of proportion to their numbers. Their conquests have extended as far as Niu6, or Savage Island, 200 m. east, and to various other islands to the north. In Captain Cook's time Poulaho, the principal chief, considered Samoa to be within his dominions. This pre- eminence may perhaps be due to an early infusion of Fijian blood: it has been observed that such crosses are always more vigorous than the pure races in these islands; and this influence seems also traceable in the Tongan dialect, and appears to have been partially transmitted thence to the Samoan. Various customs, traditions and names of places also point to a former relation with Fiji. Their prior conversion to Christianity gave the Tongans material as well as moral advantages over their neighbours. Crime is infrequent, and morality, always above the Polynesian average, has improved. The people have strict notions of etiquette and gradations of rank. In disposition they are amiable and courteous, but arrogant, lively, inquisitive and inclined to steal — their attacks in earlier days on Europeans, when not caused by misunderstandings, being due probably to their coveting property which to them was of immense value. They are brave and not unenergetic, though the soft climate and the abundance of food discourage industry. They value children, and seldom practised infanticide, and cannibalism was rare. Their women are kindly treated, and only do the lighter work. Agriculture, which is well understood, is the chief industry. They are bold and skilful sailors and fishermen; other trades, as boat and house building, carving, cooking, net and mat making, are usually hereditary. Their houses are slightly built, but the surrounding ground and roads are laid out with great care and taste. There were formerly (till the early l8th century) two sovereigns; the higher of these, called Tui Tonga (chief of Tonga), was greatly reverenced but enjoyed little power. The real ruler and the chief officers of _the state were members of the Tubou family, from which also the wife of the Tui Tonga was always chosen, whose descendants through the female line had special honours and privileges, under the title of tamaha, recalling the vasu of Fiji. The explanation of the dual kingship is probably this — the Tui Tonga were regarded as the direct descendants of the original head of the family from which the people sprang; regarded with reverence, and possessing unlimited power, they came to misuse this and discontent resulted, whereupon, to protect themselves, they appointed an executive deputy. Below these came the Eiki or chiefs, and next to them the class called Matabule. These were the hereditary counsellors and companions of the chiefs, and conveyed to the people the decisions formed at their assemblies. They also directed the national cere- monies, and preserved the popular traditions. While, under the control of Europeans, the Tongans have shown some aptitude for administration, they fail when left to themselves. They pick up superficial acquirements with astonishing ease, but seem to be incapable of mastering any subject. They write shorthand, but speak no English; they have a smattering of higher mathematics, yet are ignorant of book-keeping. Their government, effective enough when dealing with natives, breaks down in all departments concerned with Europeans, and becomes the prey of designing traders. Their ambition is to rank as a civilized state, and the flattery lavished on them by their teachers has spoiled them. There are some ancient stone remains in Tongatabu, burial places (feitoka) built with great blocks, and a remarkable monument consisting of two large upright blocks morticed to carry a transverse one, on which was formerly a circular basin of stone. Administration and Trade. — In May 1900 the group became a British protectorate under the native flag, the appointment of the consul and agent being transferred to the government of New Zealand. In 1904 the financial and legal administration was put into the hands of the British High Commissioner for the Western Pacific. The native king is assisted by a legislative assembly consisting, in equal numbers, of hereditary nobles and popular (elected) representatives. The wisdom of King George Tubou in refusing to alienate an acre of land, except upon lease, has resulted in Tonga having been the last native state in the Pacific to lose its independence. There is a revenue of about £21,000 annually derived chiefly from a poll-tax, leases and customs. The principal exports are copra, bananas, oranges and fungus, and the annual values of exports and imports are £80,000 and £70,000 respectively on an average, though both fluctuate considerably. British coin is legal tender (since 1905). There are five churches in Tonga — the Free Wesleyans, embracing the great majority of the inhabitants, Wesleyans, Roman Catholics, and Seventh Day Adventists. These last are few; a still smaller number of natives are nominally Anglicans. History. — In 1616 the vessels of Jacob Lemaire and Willem Cornelis Schouten reached the island of Niuatobutabu, and had a hostile encounter with the natives. In 1643 Abel Tasman arrived at Tongatabu and was more fortunate. The next visit was that of Samuel Wallis in 1767, followed in 1773 by that of Captain Cook. In 1777 Cook returned, and stayed seven weeks among the islands. In 1799 a revolution, having its origin in jealousy between two natives of high rank, broke out. Civil war dragged on for many years — long after the deaths of the first leaders — but Taufaahau, who became king in 1845 under the name of George Tubou I., proved a strong ruler. In 1822 a Methodist missionary had arrived in the island, and others followed. The attempt to introduce a new faith led to renewed strife, this time between converts and pagans, but King George (who fully appreciated the value of intercourse with foreigners) supported the missionaries, and by 1852 the rebels were subdued. The missionaries, finding their position secure, presently began to take action in political affairs, and persuaded the king to grant a constitution to the Tongans, who welcomed it with a kind of childish enthusiasm, but were far from fitted to receive it. A triennial parliament, a cabinet, a privy council, and an elaborate judicial system were established, and the cumbrous machinery was placed in the hands of a " prime minister," a retired Wesleyan missionary, Mr Shirley Baker. Treaties of friendship were concluded with Germany, Great Britain, and the United States of America. Baker induced the king to break off his connexion with the Wesleyan body in Sydney, and to set up a state church. Persecution of members of the old church followed, and in 1890 the missionary-premier had to be removed from the group by the high commissioner. He afterwards returned to initiate a new sect called the " Free Church of England," which for a time created further divisions among the people. • King George Tubou died in 1893 at the age of ninety-six, and was succeeded by his great-grandson under the same title. TONGKING Mr Basil Thomson (who after Baker's deportation had carried out reforms which the natives, when left alone, were incapable of maintaining) was sent in 1900 to conclude the treaty by which the king placed his kingdom under British protection. See Captain Cook's Voyages and other early narratives; Martin, Mariner's account of the Tonga Islands (Edinburgh, 1827) ; Vason, Four Years in Tongatabu (London, 1815) ; A. Monfort, Les Tonga, ou Archipel des Amis (Lyons, 1893); B. H. Thomson, The Diversions of a Prime Minister (London, 1894). TONGKING,1 a province of French Indo-China, and protec- torate of France, situated between 20° and 235° N. and 102° and 1085° E., and bounded N. by the Chinese provinces of Kwang- Tung, Kwang-Si and Yun-nan, W. by Laos, S. by Annam, and E. by the Gulf of Tongking. Area, about 46,000 sq. m. The population is estimated at 6,000,000, including 33,000 Chinese and about 4000 Europeans. Geographically, Tongking com- prises three regions: (i) the delta of the Song-Koi (Red river), which, beginning at Son-Tay and coalescing with the delta of the Thai-Binh, widens out into the low-lying and fertile plain within which are situated the principal cities. (2) Two moun- tainous tracts, to the north and west of the delta, running approximately from north-west to south-east, one separating the basins of the Song-Koi and the Canton river, the other those of the Song-Koi and the Mekong. (3) A region of plateaus and low hills forming a transition between the delta and the mountains. The main geographical feature in the country is the Song-Koi, which, taking its rise near Tali Fu, in Yun-nan, enters Tongking at Lao-Kay (the Lao boundary), and flows thence in a south-easterly direction to the Gulf of Tongking. It was this river which mainly, in the first instance, attracted the French to Tongking, as it was believed by the explorers that, forming the shortest route by water to the rich province of Yun-nan, it would prove also to be the most convenient and expeditious means of transporting the tin, copper, silver and gold which are known to abound there. This belief, however, has proved fallacious. The upper course of the stream is constantly impeded by rapids, the lowest being about thirty miles above Hung-Hoa. Beyond Lao-Kay navigation is impracticable during the dry season, and at all other times of the year goods have to be there transferred into light junks. Below Lao-Kay larger junks, and in the summer months steam launches of shallow draught use the river. Within the limits of Yun-nan the navigation is still more difficult. Near Son-Tay the Song-Koi receives the waters of the Song-Bo (Black river) and the Song-Ka (Clear river), parallel affluents rising in Yun-nan, and from that point divides into a network of waterways which empty themselves by countless outlets into the sea. The Song-Cau rises in north-eastern Tongking and below the town of Sept Pagodes, where it is joined by the Song- Thuong to form the Thai-Binh, divides into numerous branches, communicating with the Song-Koi by the Canal des Rapides and the Canal des Bambous. The coast line of Tongking from Mon-Kay on the Chinese frontier to Thanh-Hoa, near that of Annam, has a length of 375 m. From Mon-Kay as far as the estuary of the Song-Koi it is broken, rugged and fringed with islands and rocky islets. The bay of Tien-Hien, to the south of which lies the island of Ke-Bao, and the picturesque bay of Along, are the chief indentations. Beyond the island of Cac-Ba, south of the Bay of Along, the coast is low, flat and marshy, and tends to advance as the alluvial deposits of the delta accumulate. The climate of Tongking is less trying to Europeans than that of the rest of French Indo-China. During June, July and August, the temperature ranges between 82° and 100° F., but from October to May the weather is cool. The country is subject to typhoons in August and September. In the wooded regions of the mountains the tiger, elephant and panther are found, and wild buffalo, deer and monkeys are common. The delta is the home of ducks and many other varieties of aquatic birds. Tea, cardamom, and mulberry grow wild, and in general the flora approximate to that of southern China. The Annamese (see ANNAM), who form the bulk of the population of Tongking, are of a somewhat better physique than those of the 1 See also INDO-CHINA, FRENCH, and ANNAM. rest of Indo-China. Savage tribes inhabit the northern districts — the Muongs the mountains bordering the Black river, the Th6s the regions bordering the Clear river and the Thai-Binh. The Muongs are bigger and stronger than the Annamese. They have square foreheads, large faces and prominent cheek-bones, and their eyes are often almost straight. Rice, which in some places furnishes two crops annually, is incom- parably the most important product of the delta. Elsewhere there are plantations of coffee, tobacco, ramie, paper-tree (Daphne odora), cotton, jute, sugar-cane, pepper and mulberry. The cultivation of silkworms is of growing importance. Gold, copper, tin, lead and other metals are found in the higher regions of Tongking, but only gold and tin are exploited, and these only to a very limited extent. There is a large output of coal of inferior quality from Hon-Gay on the bay of Along and there are coal-workings on the island of Ke-Bao. Hanoi, Hai-phong and Nam-Dinh carry on cotton-spinning, and Hanoi and Nam-Dinh are well known for the manufacture of carved and inlaid furniture. The natives are skilful at enamelling and the chasing and ornamentation of gold and other metals. The manu- facture of paper from the fibrous bark of the paper-tree is a wide- spread industry and there are numerous distilleries of rice-spirit. The imports of Tongking, which in 1905 reached a value of £3,501,422, comprise railway material, cereals, flour, liquors, woven goods, petroleum, glassware, paper, prepared skins, clocks and watches, arms and ammunition, &c. Exports (valued at £1,393,674 in 1905) comprise rice, rubber, manila hemp, ramie, lacquer and badian oils, raw skins, silk-waste, coal, Chinese drugs, rattan, mats, gamboge. The transit trade via Tongking between Hong-Kong and the province of Yun-nan in southern China is of considerable importance, reaching in 1905 a value of £1,146,000. This trade is entirely in the hands of Chinese houses, the tin of the Yun-nan mines and cotton yarns from Hong-Kong constituting its most important elements. Goods in transit enjoy a rebate of 80% of the customs duties. Goods are carried on the Song-Koi to Lao-Kay or Man-Hao, thence on mules. The waterways of the delta are lined with em- bankments, the causeways along which form the chief means of land communication of the region. (For railways, see INDO-CHINA, FRENCH.) The protectorate of Tongking approaches nearer to direct admin- istration than that of Annam, where the conditions of the protector- ate are more closely observed. Till 1897 the emperor of Annam was represented in Tongking by a viceroy (kinh-luoc), but now the native officials are appointed by and are directly under the control of the resident-superior, who resides at Hanoi, presides over [the (pro- tectorate council, and is the chief territorial representative of France. Tongking is divided into nineteen provinces, in each of which there is a resident or a vice-resident, and four military territories, the latter administered by commandants. In each province there is a council of native " notables," elected by natives and occupied with the discussion of the provincial budget and public works. There is also a deliberative council of natives (instituted 1907) fof the whole of Tongking. The provincial administration, local government and educational system are analogous to those of Annam (g.t;.). Two chambers of the court of appeal of Indo-China and a criminal court sit at Hanoi; there are tribunals of first instance and tribunals of commerce at Hanoi and Hai-Phong. When both parties to a suit are Annamese, it comes within the jurisdiction of the An-Sat or native judge of the province. The following is a summary of the budgets of 1899 and 1904: — Receipts. Expenditure. 1899 1904 £ 461,235 756,648 £ 427,993 494,034 The chief source of revenue is the direct taxes (including especially the poll-tax and land-tax), which amounted in 1904 to £417,723, while the chief items of expenditure are the cost of the residencies and general staff, public works and the civil guard. For the early history of Tongking, see ANNAM and INDO-CHINA, FRENCH. Tongking was loosely united to Annam until 1801, when Gia-long, king of Annam, brought it definitely under his sway. Having, by the treaty of 1862 and the annexation of Cochin China, firmly established themselves in Annames* territory, the French began to turn their attention to Tongking, attracted by the reported richness of its mineral wealth. They found a pretext for interfering in its affairs in the disturbances arising from the invasion of its northern provinces by the disbanded followers of the Taiping rebels. The Franco-German War of 1870-71 put an end to the project for a time, but the return of peace in Europe was the signal for the renewal of hos- tilities in the East. The appearance of Garnier's work on his expedition up the Mekong again aroused an interest in Tongking, TONGKING and the reported wealth of the country added the powerful motive of self-interest to the yearnings of patriotism. Already Jean Dupuis, a trader who in the pursuit of his calling had penetrated into Yun-nan, was attempting to negotiate for the passage up the Song-Koi of himself and a cargo of military stores for the Chinese authorities in Yun-nan. Meanwhile Captain Senez appeared from Saigon, having received instructions to open the route to French commerce. But to neither the trader nor the naval officer would the Tongkingese lend a favourable ear, and in default of official permission Dupuis determined to force his way up the river. This he succeeded in doing, but arrived too late, for he found the Taiping rebellion crushed and the stores no longer wanted. On the return of Dupuis to Hanoi, the Tongkingese general at that place wrote to the king of Annam, begging him to induce the governor of Cochin-China to remove the intruder. An order was thereupon issued calling upon Dupuis to leave the country. This he declined to do, and, after some negotiations, Francis Gamier with a detachment was sent to Hanoi to do the best he could in the difficult circumstances. Gamier threw himself heart and soul into Dupuis's projects, and, when the Tongkingese authorities refused to treat with him except on the subject of Dupuis's expulsion, he attacked the citadel in November, 1873, and carried it by assault. Having thus secured his position, he sent to Saigon for reinforcements, and meanwhile sent small detachments against the five other important fortresses in the delta (Hung-yen, Phu-Ly, Hai-Duong, Ninh-Binh and Nam- Dinh), and captured them all. The Tongkingese now called in the help of Lu-Vinh-Phuoc, the leader of the " Black Flags," l who at once marched with a large force to the scene of action. Within a few days he recaptured several villages near Hanoi, and so threatening did his attitude appear that Gamier, who had hurried back after capturing Nam-Dinh, made a sortie from the citadel. The movement proved a disastrous one, and resulted in the death of Gamier and of his second in command, Balny d'Avricourt. Meanwhile the news of Garnier's hostilities had alarmed the governor of Saigon, who, having no desire to be plunged into a war, sent Philastre, an inspector of native affairs, to offer apologies to the king of Annam. When, however, on arriving in Tongking Philastre heard of Garnier's death, he took command of the French forces, and at once ordered the evacuation of Nam-Dinh, Ninh-Binh and Hai-Duong — a measure which, however advantageous it may have been to the French at the moment, was most disastrous to the native Christian population, the withdrawal of the French being the signal for a general massacre of the converts. In pursuance of the same policy Philastre made a convention with the authorities (March, 1874) by which he bound his countrymen to withdraw from the occu- pation of the country, retaining only the right to trade on the Song-Koi and at Hanoi and Hai-Phong, and agreed to put an end to Dupuis's aggressive action. For a time affairs remained in stai/u quo, but in 1882 Le Myre deVillers, the governor of Cochin-China, sent Henri Riviere with a small force to open up the route to Yun-nan by the Song-Koi. With a curious similarity the events of Garnier's campaign were repeated. Finding the authorities intractable, Riviere stormed and carried the citadel of Hanoi, and then, with very slight loss, he captured Nam-Dinh, Hai-Duong, and other towns in the delta. And once again these victories brought the Black Flags into the neighbourhood of Hanoi. As Gamier had done, so Riviere hurried back from Nam-Dinh on news of the threatened danger. Like Gamier also he headed a sortie against his enemies, and like Gamier he fell a victim to nis own impetuosity (May, 1883). In the meantime the Annamese court had been seeking to enlist the help of the Chinese in their contest with the French. The tie which bound the tributary nation to the sovereign state had been for many generations slackened or drawn closer as circumstances determined, but it had never been entirely dissevered, and from the Annamese point of view this was one 1 Bands of Chinese rebels who infested the mountainous region of Tongking. of the occasions when it was of paramount importance that it should be acknowledged and acted upon. With much more than usual regularity, therefore, the king despatched presents and letters to the court of Peking, and in 1880 he sent a special embassy, loaded with unusually costly offerings, and bearing a letter in which his position of a tributary was emphatically asserted. Far from ignoring the responsibility thrust upon him, the emperor of China ordered the publication of the letter in the Peking Gazette. The death of Riviere and the defeat of his troops had placed the French in a position of extreme difficulty. M. Jules Ferry, who had become premier of France in February 1883, determined on a vigorous forward policy. But for the moment the outlying garrisons, except those of Nam-Dinh and Hai-Phong, had to be withdrawn and Hanoi itself was besieged by the Black Flags. Reinforcements brought by Admiral Courbet and General Bouet were insufficient to do more than keep them at bay. So con- tinued was the pressure on the garrison that Bouet determined to make an advance upon Son-Tay to relieve the blockade. .He attacked Vong, a fortified village, but he met with such resistance that, after suffering considerable loss, he was obliged to retreat to Hanoi. In the lower delta fortune sided with the French, and almost without a casualty Hai-Duong and Phu-Binh fell into their hands. Meanwhile, in order to put more effective pressure upon the court of Hue, Dr Harmand, commissary- general, supported by Courbet, proceeded with a naval force to the Hue river. They found that, though King Tu Due was dead, his policy of resistance was maintained, and therefore stormed the city. After a feeble defence it was taken, and Harmand concluded a treaty with the king (August 1883) in which the French protectorate was fully recognized, the king further binding himself to recall the Annamese troops serving in Tong- king, and to construct a road from Saigon to Hanoi. Though this treaty was exacted from Annam under pressure, the French lost no time in carrying out that part of it which gave them the authority to protect Tongking, and Bouet again advanced in the direction of Son-Tay. But again the resistance he met with compelled him to retreat, after capturing the fortified post of Palan. Meanwhile, on the determination to attack Son-Tay becoming known in Paris, the Chinese ambassador warned the ministry that, since Chinese troops formed part of the garrison, he should consider it as tantamount to a declaration of war. But his protest met with no consideration. On the arrival of reinforcements an advance was again made; and on the i6th of December 1883, after some desperate fighting, Son-Tay fell. During 1884 the French made themselves masters of the lower delta. Throughout the campaign Chinese regulars fought against the French, who thus found themselves involved in war with China. While hostilities were in progress M. Fournier, (he French consul at Tientsin, had been negotiating for peace, so far as China was concerned, with Li Hung-chang, and in May 1884 had signed and sealed a memorandum by which the Chinese plenipotentiary agreed that the Chinese troops should evacuate the northern provinces of Tongking " immediatement." In the following month another treaty, signed at Hue, confirmed the French protectorate over Annam and Tongking. It was not, however, followed by a cessation of military operations. A misunderstanding arose between the French and the Chinese as to the exact date for the evacuation of their posts by the Chinese, and in June General Millot, then commander-in-chief of the French forces, dispatched Colonel Dugenne at the head of a strong force to occupy Lang-Son. The expedition was badly arranged; the baggage train was far too unwieldy; and the pace at which the men were made to march was too quick for that scorching time of the year. They advanced, however, to Bac-Le, within 25 m. of Lang-Son, when they suddenly came upon a Chinese camp. An irregular engagement began, and, in the pitched battle which ensued, the Chinese broke the French lines, and drove them away in headlong flight. This brought the military operations for the season to a close. During the rainy season fevers of all kinds became alarmingly TONGS— TONGUE prevalent, and the number of deaths and of men invalided was very large. In the meantime, however, an expedition, led by Colonel Donnier, against the Chinese garrison at Chu, about 10 m. south-east from Lang-kep, was completely successful; and in a battle fought near Chu the Chinese were defeated, with a loss of 3000 killed, the French loss being only 20 killed and 90 wounded. In the skirmishes which followed the French were generally victorious, but not to such a degree as to warrant any enlargement of the campaign. In January 1885 large reinforcements arrived and Briere de 1'Isle, who had succeeded Millot as commander-in-chief, ordered an advance towards Lang-Son. The difficulties of transport greatly impeded his movements, still the expedition was successful. On the 6th of February three forts at Dong- Song, with large supplies of stores and ammunition, fell into the hands of the French. Three days' heavy fighting made them masters of a defile on the road, and on the i3th Lang-Son was taken, the garrison having evacuated the town just before the entrance of the conquerors. With his usual energy General Negrier, who commanded a division under Briere de 1'Isle, pressed on in pursuit to Ki-Hea, and even captured the frontier town of Cua-Ai. But Briere de 1'Isle had now to hurry back to the relief of Tuyen-Kwan, which was doggedly resisting the attacks of an overwhelming Chinese force, and Negrier was left in command at Lang-Son. The withdrawal of Briere de ITsle's division gave the Chinese greater confidence, and, though for a time Negrier was able to hold his own, on the 22nd and 23rd of March he sustained a severe check between Lang-Son and That-Ke, which was finally converted into a complete rout, his troops being obliged to retreat precipitately through Lang- Son to Than-Moi and Dong-Song. Briere de 1'Isle reached Tuyen-Kwan, the garrison of which was commanded by Colonel Domine, on the 3rd of March, and effected its relief. The disaster at Lang-Son caused the downfall of the Ferry ministry (March 30). Shortly afterwards Sir Robert Hart succeeded in negotiating peace with China. By the terms agreed on at Tientsin (June, 1885), it was stipulated that France was to take Tongking and Annam under its protection and to evacuate Formosa and the Pescadores. (For further history, see INDO- CHINA.) See J. Dupuis, Le Tong-kin et I' intervention fran^aise (Paris, 1898); C. B. Norman, Tonkin or France in the Far East (London, 1884); Prince Henri d'Orl&ms, Autour du Tonkin (Paris, 1896); J. Ferry, Le Tonkin et la mere-palrie (Paris, 1890); J. Chailley, Paul Bert au Tonkin (Paris, 1887) ; E. Lunet de Lajonquiere, Ethnographic du Tonkin Septentrional (Paris, 1906) ; A. Gaisman, L'CEuvre de la France au Tonkin (Paris, 1906) ; also the bibliography under INDO-CHINA, FRENCH. TONGS (O. Eng. tange, M. Eng. longe, cf. Du. tang, Ger. Zange, from base tang, to bite, cf. Gr. SaKveiv), a gripping and lifting instrument, of which there are many forms adapted to their specific use. Some are merely large pincers or nippers, but the greatest number fall into three classes: the first, as in the com- mon fire-tongs, used for picking up pieces of coal and placing them on a fire, which have long arms terminating in small fiat circular grippers and are pivoted close to the handle; the second, as in the sugar-tongs, asparagus tongs, and the like, consisting of a single band of metal bent round or of two bands joined at the head by a spring, and third, such as the blacksmith's tongs or the crucible-tongs, in which the pivot or joint is placed close to the gripping ends. A special form of tongs is that known as the " lazy-tongs," consisting of a pair of grippers at the end of a series of levers pivoted together like scissors, the whole being closed or extended by the movement of the handles communi- cated to the first set of levers and thence to the grippers, the whole forming an extensible pair of tongs for gripping and lifting things at a distance. TONGUE (O. Eng. tunge), in anatomy, a movable organ situated in the floor of the mouth, and serving for the sensation of taste besides helping in the mastication of food, in articulate speech, and in feeling the exact position of any structure within the mouth. The tongue is divided into a main part or body, a base which looks backward toward the pharynx, a dorsum or upper surface, a root by which it is attached to the hyoid bone and floor of the mouth, a tip which is free and an inferior free surface in contact with the front part of the floor of the mouth and with the lower incisor teeth. Owing to the large amount of muscle in its com- position the shape of the tongue varies considerably from time to time. The dorsum of the tongue is covered by stratified squamous epithelium, and, when at rest, is convex both antero- posteriorly and transversely; it is thickly studded with papillae, of which four kinds are recognized. Filiform papillae are minute conical projections covering the whole of the dorsum, by which term the true upper surface is meant, as well as the tip and borders of the tongue. They are very numerous and contain a short core of subepithelial mucous mem- brane covered by a thick coating of epithelial cells, which coating may divide at its tip into a number of thread-like processes. Fungiform papillae are less numerous than the last, and somewhat resemble "button mushrooms"; they generally contain special taste buds. Circumiiallate papillae are usually from seven to ten in number and are arranged in the form of a V, the apex of which points down the throat. They lie quite at the back of the upper surface of the tongue and each consists of a little flat central mound surrounded by a deep moat, the outer wall of which is slightly raised above the surface, and it is to this that the papillae owe their name. Both sides of the moat have taste buds embedded in them, while into the bottom small serous glands open. Foliate papillae are only vestigial in man and consist of a series of vertical ridges occupying a small oval area on each side of the tongue near its base and just in front of the attachment of the anterior pillars of the fauces. (See PHARYNX.) The posterior surface or base of the tongue forms part of the anterior wall of the pharynx and has a quite different appearance to that of the dorsum. On it are found numerous circular or oval elevations of the mucous membrane caused by lymphoid tissue (lymphoid follicles), on the summit of the most of which is a mucous crypt or depression. The division between the superior or oral surface of the tongue and the posterior or pharyngeal is sharply marked by a V-shaped shallow groove called the sulcus terminals which lies just behind and parallel to the V-shaped row of circumvallate papillae. At the apex of this V is a small blind pit, the foramen caecum. At the lower part of the pharyngeal surface three folds of mucous membrane, called glosso-epiglottic folds, run backward ; the middle one passes to the centre of the front of the epiglottis, while the two lateral ones, in modern anatomy often called pharyngo-epiglottic folds, pass backward and outward to the fossa of the tonsil. On the inferior free surface of the tongue, that is to say, the surface which is seen when the mouth is looked into and the tongue turned up, there is a median fold of mucous membrane called the fraenum linguae, which is attached below to the floor of the mouth. On each side of this the blue outlines of the ranine veins are seen, while close to these a little fold on each side, known as a plica fimbriata, is often found. It must not, however, be confused with the plica sublin- gualis described in the article MOUTH AND SALIVARY GLANDS. The substance of the tongue is composed almost entirely of striped muscle fibres which run in different directions. Some of these bundles, such as the superficial, deep, transverse and oblique linguales are confined to the tongue and are spoken of as intrinsic muscles. Other muscles, such as the hyo-glossus, stylo-glossus, &c. come from elsewhere and are extrinsic; these are noticed under the head of MUSCULAR SYSTEM. The arteries of the tongue are derived from the lingual, a branch of the external carotid (see ARTERIES), while the veins from the tongue return the blood, by one or more veins on each side, into the internal jugular vein (see VEINS). The nerves to the tongue are the (i) lingual or gustatory, a branch of the fifth (see NERVES •.•Cranial) which supplies the anterior two- thirds with ordinary sensation and also, by means of the chorda tymphani which is bound up with it, with taste sensation; (2) the glossopharyngeal which supplies the circumvallate papillae and posterior third of the tongue with taste and ordinary sensation ; (3) a few twigs of the superior laryngeal branch of the vagus to the pharyngeal surface of the tongue; and (4) the hypoglossal which is the motor nerve to the muscles. Embryology. The mucous membrane covering the second and third visceral arches fuses to form the furcula (see RESPIRATORY SYSTEM). Just in front of this a rounded eminence appears at an early date in the ventral wall of the pharynx to form the tuberculum impar which is separated from the furcula by the depression known as the sinus arcuatus. This tuberculum impar gradually grows to form the central part of the tongue in front of the foramen caecum, while the anterior part of the organ is derived from two lateral swellings which appear in the floor of the mouth and surround the tuberculum impar antero-laterally. The posterior third, or pharyngeal part, is developed from the anterior part of the furcula 8 TONGUE in the middle line, that is to say from the third visceral arch. The sinus arcuatus becomes gradually shallower as these two parts of the tongue grow together and eventually is indicated by the sulcus terminalis; in the mid line, however, the isthmus of the thyroid grows down from it, forming the thyro-glossal duct the remains of which are seen in the foramen caecum (see DUCTLESS GLANDS). It will be seen that the tongue is developed in connexion with the first, second and third visceral arches, and it is therefore to be expected that the fifth, seventh and ninth nerves which supply those arches would help to supply it, but the vagus from the fourth arch reaches it in addition, while the fact that most of the muscular substance of the tongue is supplied by the hypoglossal nerve is explained on the theory that some of the cervical skeletal muscula- ture has grown cephalad into the tongue and has carried its nerve with it. Comparative Anatomy. The tongue is present in fishes but it is an immovable swelling in the floor of the mouth and is practically devoid of muscles. In the hag (Myxine) among the Cyclostomata, and pike (Esox) among the Internal jugular vein Spinal accessory nerve Digastric muscle | Hypoglossal nerve Internal carotid artery | Pneumogastric nerve I | Sympathetic Ascending phoryngeal artery Odontoid proc Styloltyoid Glosso- pharyngeal nerve Parotid gland Temporo- maxillary vein External carotid artery Slyloglossu Ascending palatine artery Internal pterygoid Epiglottis Frenulum epiglottidis Massetei Pharyftgeal portioi of tongu Post-pharyngeal lymphatic gland Superior constrictor muscle Posterior palatine arch Pharyngo-epiglottic fold Anterior palatine arch • Fuogiform Buccinat Fungiform papill (From Ambrose Birmingham in Cunningham's Text Book of Anatomy.} Horizontal Section through Mouth and Pharynx at the Level of the Tonsils. Teleostei, teeth are developed on the tongue. In the Amphibia the tailed forms (Urodela) usually have tongues like fishes, though in the genus Spelerpes the organ is very free and can be protruded for a great distance. In the majority of the Anura the tongue is usually attached close to the front of the floor of the mouth so that it can be flapped forward with great rapidity. There are, however, two closely allied families of frogs (Xenopodidae and Pipidae) which form the order of Aglossa, because in them the tongue is suppressed. In the reptiles the tongue is generally very movable, though this is not the case in the Crocodilia and many of the Chelonia. The forked tongues of snakes and many lizards and the highly specialized telescopic tongue of the chameleon are familiar objects. In_ birds the tongue is usually covered with horny epithelium and is poorly supplied with muscles. When it is very protrusible, as in the woodpecker, the movement is due to the hyoid, with the base of the tongue attached, moving forward. In the Mammalia the tongue is always movable by means of well- developed extrinsic and intrinsic muscles, while papillae and glands are numerous. The filiform papillae reach their maximum in the feline family of the Carnivora where they convert the tongue into a rasp by which bones can be licked clean of all flesh attached to them. Foliate papillae are best seen in the rodents, and when they are well developed the circumvallate papillae are few, often only one on each side. In the lemurs an under tongue or sub lingua is found, which is probably represented by the plicae fimbriatae under the human tongue, and by some morphologists is regarded as the homologue of the whole tongue of the lower vertebrates, the greater part of the mammalian tongue being then looked upon as a new formation. For further details and literature see R. Wiedersheim's Compara- tive Anatomy of Vertebrates, translated by W. N. Parker (London, 1907) ; C. Gegenbaur, Vergleich. Anat. der Wirbelthiere (Leipzig, 1901); A. Oppel, Lehrb. vergleich. mikroskop. Anat. der Wirbelthiere, Teil 3 (Jena, 1900); Parker and Haswell, Text Book of Zoology (London, 1897). (F. G. P.) Surgery of the Tongue. During infancy it is sometimes noticed that the little band of membrane (fraenum) which binds the under part of the tongue to the middle line of the floor of the mouth is unusually short. The condition will probably, right itself as the front part of the tongue takes on its natural growth. In some children the tongue is so large that it hangs out of the mouth, scratching itself upon the teeth. This condition is likely to be associated with weak intellect. Acute inflammation of the tongue may be caused by the sting of a wasp or by the entrance of septic germs through a wound, and the trouble may end in an abscess. Chronic inflammation of the tongue may be caused by syphilis, by the irritation of decayed teeth or of a badly-fitting plate of artificial teeth, or by excessive smoking. The con- dition is one of danger in that it may lead eventually to the tongue becom- ing the seat of cancer. The treatment demands the removal of every source of irritation. The teeth must be made sound and smooth and must be kept so. Smoking must be absolutely and entirely given up, and salt, mustard, pickles, spirits, aerated waters, and everything else which is likely to be a cause of irritation must be avoided. Cancer of the tongue is the result of chronic irritation which produces an excessive growth of the scaly covering of the tongue and causes an invasion of the deeper parts of the tongue by the scales. It is more often found in men than women and is usually asso- ciated with a hard swelling at one side of the tongue — perhaps near a jagged tooth or at the spot where the end of the pipe-stem approaches the tongue. The nerves of the tongue being caught and compressed in the growth, pain is constant and severe, and the move- ments during mastication cause great distress. The swelling gradually in- creases in size and, spreading to the floor of the mouth, hinders the free movements of the tongue. In due course it breaks down in the middle and a hard-walled ulcer appears. All this time the small scales of the cancer are finding their way along the lymph-channels and causing a secondary enlargement in the glands just below the jaw and along the side of the neck. Enlargement of the cervical glands is a very serious complication of cancer of the tongue. The only treatment for cancer of the tongue which is at present known in surgery is the early removal by operation. It not seldom happens that because there is a certain amount of doubt as to the exact nature of the growth in the early weeks delay in operating is reasonably permitted, but during this time there is the risk of the cells of the disease finding their way to the lymphatic system. Still, inasmuch as there may be great difficulty in determining the diagnosis from tertiary syphilitic disease, a course of treatment by iodide of potassium may well be recommended. Syphilis is often the precursor of lingual cancer, and it is impossible to say exactly when the syphilitic lesion becomes malignant. In the case of a cancerous tumour of the tongue being so deeply or so widely attached that its removal cannot be recommended, relief may be afforded by the extraction of most, or all of the teeth, by limiting the food to the most simple and unirritating kinds, and possibly by dividing the great sensory nerves of the tongue. Cancer of the tongue is now operated on in advanced cases such as in former years would not have been dealt with by a radical operation. An incision is made beneath the jaw and through the floor of *he Raphe of tongue Conical papillae TONGUES, GIFT OF mouth, by which the tongue is drawn out and rendered easily accessible, the arteries being leisurely secured as the tissues are cut across. The upper part of the gullet is plugged by a sponge so that no blood can enter the lungs, and unimpeded respiration is provided for by the preliminary introduction of a tube into the windpipe. Through the incision which is made below the jaw the infected lymphatic glands are removed. To Dr Kocher of Berne the profes- sion and the public are indebted for this important advance in the treatment of this disease. (E. O*.) TONGUES, GIFT OF, or GLOSSOLALIA (y^Sxraa, tongue, \a\fiv, speak), a faculty of abnormal and inarticulate vocal utterance, under stress of religious excitement, which was widely developed in the early Christian circles, and has its parallels in other religions. In the New Testament such experiences are recorded in Caesarea (Acts x. 46), at Corinth (Acts xix. 6; i Cor. xii., xiv.), Thessalonica (i Thess. v. 19), Ephesus (Eph. v. 18), and universally (Mark xvi. 17). From the epistles of Paul, who thanked God that he spake with tongues more than all or any of his Corinthian converts, we can gather a just idea of how he regarded this gift and of what it really was. Firstly, then, it was a grace (charisma) of the spirit, yet not of the holy or pure spirit only, but of evil spirits also who on occasions had been known to take possession of the larynx of a saint and exclaim, " Jesus is Anathema." As no one could curse Jesus except under the influence of a devilish afflatus, so none could say " Jesus is Lord " except he was inspired by the Holy Spirit. But, secondly, the pneumatic utterances techni- cally known as speaking with tongues failed to reach this level of intelligibility; for Paul compares " a tongue " to a material object which should merely make a noise, to a pipe or harp twanged or blown at random without tune or time, to a trumpet blaring idly and not according to a code of signal notes. Unless, therefore, he that has the gift of tongues also possess the gift of interpreting his exclamations, or unless some one present can do so for him, he had not better exercise it in church. He is a barbarian to others and they to him, since they cannot under- stand what is spoken by him. Paul discriminates between the Spirit which during these paroxysms both talks and prays to God and the nous or understanding which informs a believer's psalm, teaching, revelation or prophesy, and renders them intelligible, edifying and profitable to the assembly. Accordingly Paul lays down rules which he regarded as embodying the Lord's commandment. A man " that speaketh in a tongue speaketh not unto men, but unto God; for no man understandeth;" and therefore it is expedient that he keep this gift for his private chamber and there pour out the mysteries. In church it is best that he should confine himself to prophesying, for that brings to others " edification and comfort and consolation." If, however, tongues must be heard in the public assembly, then let not more than three of the saints exhibit the gift, and they only in succession. Nor let them exhibit it at all, unless there is some one present who can interpret the tongues and tell the meeting what it all means. If the whole congregation be talking with tongues all at once, and an unbeliever or one with no experience of pneumatic gifts come in, what will he think, asks Paul. Surely that " you are mad." So at Pentecost on the occasion of the first outpouring of the Spirit the saints were by the bystanders accused of being drunk (Acts ii. 15). In the church meeting, says Paul, " I had rather speak five words with my understanding, that I might instruct others also, than ten thousand words in a tongue." The writer of Acts ii., anxious to prove that Providence from the first included the Gentiles in the Messianic Kingdom, assumes that the gift of tongues was a miraculous faculty of talking strange languages without having previously learned them. Augustine accordingly held that each of the disciples talked all languages miraculously; Chrysostom that each talked one other than his own. The Pentecostal inspiration has been construed as a providential antithesis to the confusion of tongues — an idea which Grotius expressed in the words: " Poena linguarum dispersit homines; donum linguarum disperses in unum populum collegit." Competent critics to-day recognize that such a view is impossible; and it has been suggested with much probability that in the second chapter of Acts the words in ». 5: " Now there were dwelling . . . under heaven " as well as . 6-i i : " because that every man . . . mighty works of God " were interpolated by Luke in the document he transcribed.1 The faithful talking with tongues were taken by bystanders for drunken men, but intoxicated men do not talk in languages of which they are normally ignorant.2 Paul on the whole discouraged glossolaly. " Desire earnestly the greater gifts," he wrote to the Corinthians. The gift of tongues was suitable rather to children in the faith than to the mature. Tongues were, he felt, to cease whenever the perfect should come; and the believer who spoke with the tongues of men and of angels, if he had not love, was no better than the sounding brass and clanging cymbal of the noisy heathen mysteries. It was clearly a gift productive of much disturbance in the Church (i Cor. xiv. 23). He would not, however, entirely forbid and quench it (i Thess. v. 19), so long as decency and order were preserved. It is not then surprising that we hear little of it after the apostolic age. It faded away in the great Church, and probably Celsus was describing Montanist circles (though Origen assumed that they were ordinary believers) when he wrote 3 of the many Christians of no repute who at the least provocation, whether within or without their temples, threw themselves about like inspired persons; while others did the same in cities or among armies in order to collect alms, roaming about cities or camps. They were wont to cry out, each of himself, " I am God; I am the Son of God; or I am the divine Spirit." They would indulge in prophecies of the last judgment, and back their threats with a string of strange, half-frantic and utterly unmeaning sounds, the sense of which no one with any intelligence could discover; for they were obscure gibberish, and merely furnished any fool or impostor with an occasion to twist the utterances as he chose to his own purposes. In the above we get a glimpse both of the glossalist and of his interpreter as they appeared to the outside world; and the impression made on them is not unlike that which Paul appre- hended would be left on outsiders by an indiscriminate use of the gift. Tertullian early in the 3rd century testifies that glossolaly still went on in the Montanist Church which he had joined; for we must so interpret the following passage in his De anima, cap. ix.: " There is among us at the present time a sister who is endowed with the charismatic gift of revelations, which she suffers through ecstasy in the spirit during the Sunday service in church. She converses with angels, sometimes even with the Lord, and both hears and see mysteries." The magical papyri teem with strings of senseless and barbaric words which probably answer to what certain of the Fathers called the language of demons. It has been suggested that we here have recorded the utterances of glossolalists. The attitude of Paul toward glossolaly among his converts strikingly resembles Plato's opinion as expressed in the Timaeus, p. 7 2, of the enthusiastic ecstasies of the ancient >&VT« (sooth- sayer) . " God," he writes, " has given the art of divination not to the wisdom, but to the foolishness of man ; for no man, when in his wits, attains prophetic truth and inspiration; but when he receives the inspired word either his intelligence is enthralled by sleep, or he is demented by some distemper or possession. And he who would understand what he remembers to have been said, whether in a dream or when he was awake, by the prophetic and enthusiastic nature, or what he has seen, must first recover his wits; and then he will be able to explain rationally what all 1 This misunderstanding of Acts ii. has influenced the official Roman doctrine of demoniacal possession. The Sacerdotale indi- cates as one of the symptoms of possession the ability of the possessed to talk other tongues than his own. Cf. the Fustis daempnum, cap. xi. Venetus (1606): " Aliqui sermonem alienum a patria sua loquuntur etsi nunquam e laribus paternis recesserint." 2 It is noteworthy that in Eph. v. 18 Paul contrasts the being filled with the Spirit with the foolishness of intoxication with wine, and remarks that those filled with the Spirit speak to themselves in psalms and hymns and spiritual songs and give thanks always for all things. 3 Orieen, Contra Celsum, vii. 9. IO TONK— TONNAGE such words and apparitions mean, and what indications they afford to this man or that, of past, present or future good and evil. But, while he continues demented, he cannot judge of the visions which he sees or the words which he utters. . . . And for this reason it is customary to appoint diviners or interpreters to be judges of the true inspiration."1 From such passages as the above we infer that the gift of tongues and of their inter- pretation was not peculiar to the Christian Church, but was a repetition in it of a phase common in ancient religions. The very phrase y\6xrffcu.s XaXsTc, " to speak with tongues," was not invented by the New Testament writers, but borrowed from ordinary speech. Virgil (Aen. vi. 46, 98) draws a life-like picture of the ancient prophetess " speaking with tongues." He depicts her quick changes of colour, her dishevelled hair, her panting breast, her apparent increase of stature as the god draws nigh and fills her with his divine afflatus. Then her voice loses its mortal's ring: " nee mortale sonans." The same morbid and abnormal trance utterances recur in Christian revivals in every age, e.g. among the mendicant friars of the i3th century, among the Jansenists, the early Quakers, the converts of Wesley and Whitefield, the persecuted protestants of the Cevennes, the Irvingites. Oracular possession of the kind above described is also common among savages and people of lower culture; and Dr Tylor, in his Primitive Culture, ii. 14, gives examples of ecstatic utterance interpreted by the sane. Thus in the Sandwich Islands the god Oro gave his oracles through a priest who " ceased to act or speak as a voluntary agent, but with his limbs convulsed, his features distorted and terrific, his eyes wild and strained, he would roll on the ground foaming at the mouth, and reveal the will of the god in shrill cries and sounds violent and indis- tinct, which the attending priests duly interpreted to the people." See E. B. Tylor, Primitive Culture; H. Weinel, Die Wirkungen des Geisles und der Geister (Freiburg, 1899); Shaftesbury's Letter on Enthusiasm; Mrs Oliphant, Life of Irving, vol. ii. (F. C. C.) TONK, a native state of India, in the Rajputana agency. It consists of six isolated tracts, some of which are under the Central India agency. Total area, 2553 sq. m.; total population (1901), 273,201; estimated revenue £77,000. No tribute is payable. The chief, whose title is nawab, is a Mahommedan of Afghan descent. The founder of the family was Amir Khan, the noto- rious Pindari leader at the beginning of the igth century, who received the present territory on submitting to the British in 1817. The nawab Mahommed Ibrahim Ali Khan, G.C.I.E., succeeded in 1867, and was one of the few chiefs who attended both Lord Lytton's Durbar in 1877 and the Delhi Durbar of 1903 as rulers of their states. The late minister, Sir Sahibzada Obeidullah Khan, was deputed on political duty to Peshawar during the Tirah campaign of 1897. Grain, cotton, opium and hides are the chief exports. Two of the outlying tracts of the state are served by two railways. Distress was caused by drought in 1899-1900. The town of Tonk is situated 1462 ft. above sea-level, 60 m. by road south from Jaipur, near the right bank of the river Banas. Pop. (1901), 38,759. It is surrounded by a wall, with a mud fort. It has a high school, the Walter female hospital under a lady superintendent, and a hospital for males. There is another town in India called Tonk, or Tank, in Dera Ismail Khan district, North-West Frontier Province; pop. (1901), 4402. It is the residence of a nawab, who formerly exercised semi-independent powers. Here Sir Henry Durand, lieutenant- governor of the Punjab, was killed in 1870 when passing on an elephant under a gateway. TONNAGE. The mode of ascertaining the tonnage of mer- chant ships is settled by the Merchant Shipping Acts. But before explaining the method by which this is computed, it is well to remark that there are several tonnages employed in different connexions. Displacement tonnage is that which is invariably used in respect of warships, and is the actual weight of water displaced by the vessel whose tonnage is being dealt 1 Jowett's translation. with. Men-of-War are designed to carry all their weights, including coal, guns, ammunition, stores and water in tanks and in boilers, at a certain draught, and the tonnage attributed to them is the weight of water which at that designed draught they actually displace. This displacement tonnage is therefore a total made up of the actual weight of the ship's fabric and that of everything that is on board of her. It can be found by ascertaining the exact cubic space occupied by the part of her body which is immersed (including her rudder, propellers and external shafting) at the draught under consideration in cubic feet, and dividing this by 35, since 35 cubic feet of sea-water weigh one ton. Of course there is nothing to prevent displace- ment tonnage from being used in describing the size of merchant ships, and indeed in regard to the performances of fast steam- ships on trial it is usual to give their draught on the occasion when they are tested, and to state what was their actual displace- ment under these trial conditions. But it is obvious, from what has been said as to the components which go to make up the displacement at load draught, that this tonnage must, in respect of any individual ship, be the greatest figure which can be quoted in regard to her size. It is usual for dues to be assessed against merchant vessels in respect of their registered tonnage. This must therefore be fixed by authority, and at present vessels are measured by the officer of customs according to the rules laid down in the second schedule to the Merchant Shipping Act 1894. As will be seen from the explanation of the method adopted, this is a somewhat arbitrary process, and even the gross registered tonnage affords little indication of the actual size of the ship, whilst the under-deck and net tonnages are still less in accord with the extreme dimensions. As to length for tonnage, the measurements start with the tonnage deck, which in vessels with less than three decks is the upper, and in vessels of three or more decks is the second from below. The length for tonnage is measured in a straight line along this deck from the inside of the inner plank at the bow to the inside of the inner plank at the stern, making allowance for the rake, if any, which the midship bow and stern timbers may have in the actual deck. When this is measured it is apparent into which of five classes the ship's tonnage-length places her. If she be under 50 ft. in length she falls into the first class, while if she be over 225 ft. in length she falls into the fifth class, the remaining three classes being intermediate to these. Vessels of the first class are measured as in four equal sections, and vessels of the larger class as in twelve equal sections, according to their length. Then at each of the points of division so marked off transverse areas are taken. This is done by measuring the depth in feet from a point at a distance of one- third of the round of the beam below the tonnage deck to the upper side of the floor timbers. Where the vessel has a ceiling and no water-ballast tanks at the point of measurement, 25 in. is allowed for ceiling. But where there are such tanks the measurement is taken from the top of the tank and no allowance is made for ceiling, whether there in fact be any or not. If the midship depth so found exceeds 16 ft., each depth is divided into six equal parts, and the horizontal breadths are measured at each point of division and also at the upper and lower points of the depth, extending each measurement to the average thickness of that part of the ceiling which is between the points of measure- ment. They are then numbered from above, and the second, fourth and sixth multiplied by four, whilst the third and fifth are multiplied by two. The products are then added together. To the sum are added the first and the seventh breadths. This total having been multiplied by one-third the common interval between the breadths, the resultant is the transverse area. The transverse areas so obtained at each point of the vessel's length are numbered from the bow aft. Omitting the first and last, the second and every even area so obtained are multiplied by four, whilst the third and every odd area are multiplied by two. These products are added together, as are also those of the first and last areas if they yield anything, and the figure thus reached is multiplied by one-third of the common interval between the areas. This product is reckoned as the cubical capacity of the TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE— TONSILLITIS ii ship in feet. When divided by 100 the result is the registered under-deck tonnage of the ship — subject to the additions and deductions ordered by the act. Directions of a kind similar to those already set out are given whereby the tonnage in the space enclosed between the tonnage and upper decks may be ascertained, and also for the measuring of any break, poop or other permanent closed-in space on the upper deck available for stores, and the sum of the capacity of these must be added to the under-deck tonnage to arrive at the gross registered tonnage. But an express proviso is enacted that no addition shall be made in respect of any building erected for the shelter of deck pas- sengers and approved by the board of trade. In the process of arriving at the net tonnage the main deduction allowed from the gross tonnage is that of machinery space in steamships. The method of measurement here is similar to that by which the under-deck tonnage is reached. Where the engines and boilers are fitted in separate compartments, each compartment is measured separately, as is the screw shaft tunnel in the case of steamships propelled by screws. The tonnage of these spaces is reckoned, not from the tonnage deck, but from the crown of the space; whilst, if it has previously been reckoned in the gross tonnage, there may be an allowance for the space above the crown, if enclosed for the machinery or for the admission of light and air. Allowances are only made in respect of any machinery space if it be devoted solely to machinery or to light and air. It must not be used for cargo purposes or for cabins. Further, by the act itself in the case of paddle steamships, where the machinery space is above 20% and under 30% of the gross tonnage, it is allowed to be reckoned as 37% °f such gross tonnage; whilst similarly, in the case of screw steamships, where such machinery space is over 13 % and under 20 % of the gross tonnage, it is allowed to be reckoned as 32%. Further deductions are also made in respect of space used solely for the accommodation of the master and the crew, and for the chart-room and signal- room, as well as for the wheel- house and chain cable locker and for the donkey-engine and boiler, if connected with the main pumps of the ship, and in sailing vessels for the sail locker. The space in the double bottom and in the water-ballast tanks, if these be not available for the carriage of fuel stores or cargo, is also deducted if it has been reckoned in the gross tonnage in the first instance. From the rules above laid down it follows that it is possible for vessels, if built with a full midship section, to have a gross registered tonnage considerably below what the actual cubical capacity of the ship would give, whilst in the case of steam tugs of high power it is not unprecedented, owing to the large allowances for machinery and crew spaces, for a vessel to have a registered net tonnage of nil. Suez Canal dues being charged on what is practically the registered tonnage (though all deductions permitted by the British board of trade are not accepted), it is usual, at all events in the British navy, for warships to be measured for what would be their registered tonnage if they were merchant ships, so that in case they may wish to pass through the canal a scale of payment may be easily reached. But such tonnage is never spoken of in considering their size relative to other vessels. Two other tonnages are also made use of in connexion with merchant ships, especially when specifications for vessels are being made. The first of these is measurement capacity. This is found by measuring out the true cubic capacity of the holds, whereby it is found what amount of light measurement goods can be carried. The second is deadweight capacity. This is generally given as excluding what is carried in the coal bunkers, and it is therefore the amount of deadweight which can be carried in the holds at load draught when the vessel is fully charged with coals and stores. (B. W. G.) TONNAGE AND POUNDAGE, in England, customs duties anciently imposed upon exports and imports, the former being a duty upon all wines imported in addition to prisage and butlerage, the latter a duty imposed ad valorem at the rate of twelve- pence in the pound on all merchandise imported or exported. The duties were levied at first by agreement with merchants (poundage in 1302, tonnage in 1347), then granted by parliament in *373> at first for a limited period only. They were considered to be imposed for the defence of the realm. From the reign of Henry VI. until that of James I. they were usually granted for life. They were not granted to Charles I., and in 1628 that king took the unconstitutional course of levying them on his own authority, a course denounced a few years later by 16 Car. I. c. 18 (1640), when the Long Parliament granted them for two months. After the Restoration they were granted to Charles II. and his two successors for life. By acts of Anne and George I. the duties were made perpetual, and mortgaged for the public debt. In 1 787 they were finally abolished, and other modes of obtaining revenue substituted, by 27 Geo. III. c. 13 (1787). Poundage also signifies a fee paid to an officer of a court for his services, e.g. to a sheriff's officer, who is entitled by 29 Eliz. c. 4 (1586-1587) to a poundage of a shilling in the pound on an execution up to £100, and sixpence in the pound above that sum. TONNERRE, a town of north-central France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Yonne, 52 m. S.E. of Sens on the Paris-Lyon railway. Pop. (1906), 3974. It is situated on a slope of the vineclad hills on the left bank of the Armangon. At the foot of the hill rises the spring of Fosse-Dionne, enclosed in a circular basin 49 ft. in diameter. The town has two interest- ing churches. That of St Pierre, which crowns the hill, possesses a fine lateral portal of the Renaissance period to which the church, with the exception of the choir (1351), belongs. The church of Notre-Dame is mainly Gothic, but the facade is a fine specimen of Renaissance architecture. The Salle des Malades, a large timber-roofed apartment in the hospital, dates from the end of the I3th century and is used as a chapel. It is 330 ft. long and contains the tombs of Margaret of Burgundy, wife of Charles of Anjou, king of Sicily, and foundress of the hospital, and of Frangois-Michel Le Tellier, marquis of Louvois, war minister of Louis XIV. The hospital itself was rebuilt in the igth century. The Renaissance Hotel d'Uzes was built in the i6th century. Tonnerre is the seat of a sub-prefect and has a tribunal of first instance. The vineyards of the vicinity produce well- known wines. The trade of the town is chiefly in wine, in the good building-stone found in the neighbourhood and in Portland cement. Cooperage is carried on. Its ancient name of Tornodorum points to a Gallic or Gallo- Roman origin for Tonnerre. In the 6th century it became the capital of the region of Tonnerrois and in the loth century of a countship. After passing into the possession of several noble families, it was bought from a count of Clermont-Tonnerre by Louvois, by whose descendants it was held up to the time of the Revolution. TONQUA BEAN. The Tonqua, Tonka or Tonquin bean, also called the coumara nut, is the seed of Dipterix odorala, a leguminous tree growing to a height of 80 ft., native of tropical South America. The drupe-like pod contains a single seed possessed of a fine sweet " new-mown hay " odour, due to the presence of coumarin (q.v.}. Tonqua beans are used principally for scenting snuff and as an ingredient in perfume sachets and in perfumers' " bouquets." TONSBERG, a fortified seaport of Norway, in Jarlsberg- Laurvik ami (county), situated on a bay on the south coast, near the entrance to Christiania Fjord, 72 m. S. by W. of Christi- ania on the Skien railway. Pop. (1900), 8620. It is one of the most ancient towns in Norway. It is the headquarters of a sealing and whaling fleet. The principal industries are refineries for preparing whale and seal oil and saw-mills. An interesting collection of antiquities and whaling implements is preserved in the Slotstaarn on Castle Hill. TONSILLITIS, acute inflammation of the tonsils, or quinsy, due to the invasion of the tonsil, or tonsils, by septic micro- organisms which may have gained access through the mouth or by the blood-stream. Sometimes the attack comes on as the result of direct exposure to sewer gas, and it is not at all an uncommon affection of house surgeons, nurses and others who have to spend most of their time in a hospital. The association of quinsy with rheumatism may be the result of the 12 TONSON— TONTINE infection of the tonsils by the micro-organisms or the toxins of that disease. Acute tonsillitis is very apt to run on to the formation of abscess. Quinsy may begin with a feeling of chilliness or with an attack of shivering. Then comes on a swelling in the throat with pain, tenderness and difficulty in swallowing. Indeed, if both tonsils are acutely inflamed it may be impossible to swallow even fluid and the breathing may be seriously embarrassed. The temperature may be raised several degrees. There is pain about the ear and about the jaw, and there is a swelling of the glands in the neck. The breath is offensive and the tongue is thickly coated. There may be some yellowish markings on the surface of the tonsil, but these differ from the patches of " false membrane " of diphtheria in that they can be easily brushed off by a swab, but often a true diagnosis can only be made by bacteriological examination. The treatment consists in giving a purgative, and in encouraging the patient to use an inhaler containing hot carbolized water. Hot compresses also may be applied to the neck. As regards medicines, the most trustworthy are salicylic acid, iron and quinine. As soon as abscess threatens, a slender-bladed knife should be thrust from before backward deeply into the swollen mass. And if, as most likely happens, matter then escapes, the patient's distress speedily ends. Con- valescence having set in, a change of air and course of tonic treatment will be advisable. Chronic tonsillitis is often associated with adenoid vegetations at the back of the throat of tuberculous or delicate children, such children being spoken of as being " liable to sore throat." Chronic enlargement of the tonsils may seriously interfere with a child's general health and vigour and, should the condition not subside under general measures such as a stay at a bracing seaside place and the taking of cod-liver oil and iron, it will be well to treat the tonsils by operation. (E. O.*) TONSON, the name of a family of London booksellers and publishers. Richard and Jacob Tonson (c. 1656-1736), sons of a London barber-surgeon, started in 1676 and 1677 indepen- dently as booksellers and publishers in London. In 1679 Jacob, the better known of the two, bought and published Dryden's Troilus and Cressida, and from that time was closely associated' with Dryden, and published most of his works. He published the Miscellany Poems (1684-1708) under Dryden's editorship, the collection being known indifferently as Dryden's or Tonson's Miscellany, and also Dryden's translation of Virgil (1697). Serious disagreements over the price paid, however, arose between poet and publisher, and in his Faction Displayed (1705) Dryden described Tonson as having " two left legs, and Judas-coloured hair." Subsequently the relations between the two men improved. The brothers jointly published Dryden's Spanish Friar (1683). Jacob Tonson also published Congreve's Double Dealer, Sir John Vanbrugh's The Faithful Friend and The Confederacy, and the pastorals of Pope, thus justifying Wycherly's description of him as "gentleman usher to the Muses." He bought also the valuable rights of Paradise Lost, half in 1683 and half in 1690. This was his first profitable venture in poetry. In 1712 he became joint publisher with Samuel Buckley of the Spectator, and in the following year published Addison's Cato. He was the original secretary and a prominent member of the Kit-Cat Club. About 1720 he gave up business and retired to Herefordshire, where he died on the and of April 1736. His business was carried on by his nephew, Jacob Tonson, jun. (d. 1735), and subsequently by his grand-nephew, also Jacob (d. 1767). TONSURE (Lat. tonsura, from tondere, to shave), a religious observance in the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Eastern Churches, consisting of the shaving or cutting part of the hair of the head as a sign of dedication to special service. The reception of the tonsure in these churches is the initial ceremony which marks admission to orders and to the rights and privileges of clerical standing. It is administered by the bishop with an appropriate ritual. Candidates for the rite must have been confirmed, be adequately instructed in the elements of the Christian faith, and be able to read and write. Those who have received it are bound (unless in exceptional circumstances) to renew the mark, consisting of a bare circle on the crown of the head, at least once a month, otherwise they forfeit the privileges it carries. The practice is not a primitive one; Ter- tullian simply advises Christians to avoid vanity in dressing their hair, and Jerome deprecates both long and closely cropped hair. According to Prudentius (IlepuT. xiii. 30) it was customary for the hair to be cut short at ordination. Paulinus of Nola (c. 490) alludes to the tonsure as in use among the (Western) monks; from them the practice quickly spread to the clergy. For Gaul about the year 500 we have the testimony of Sidonius ApoUinaris (iv. 13), who says that Germanicus the bishop had his hair cut " in rotae speciem." The earliest instance of an ecclesiastical precept on the subject occurs in can. 41 of the Council of Toledo (A.D. 633) : " omnes clerici, detonso superius capite toto, inferius solam circuli coronam relin- quant." Can. 33 of the Quinisext council (692) requires even singers and readers to be tonsured. Since the 8th century three tonsures have been more or less in use, known respectively as the Roman, the Greek and the Celtic. The first two are sometimes distinguished as the tonsure of Peter and the tonsure of Paul. The Roman or St Peter's tonsure prevailed in France, Spain and Italy. It consisted in shaving the whole head, leaving only a fringe of hair supposed to symbolize the crown of thorns. Late in the middle ages this tonsure was lessened for the clergy, but retained for monks and friars. In the Eastern or St Paul's tonsure the whole head was shaven, but when now practised in the Eastern Church this tonsure is held to be adequately shown when the hair is shorn close. In the Celtic tonsure (tonsure of St John, or, in contempt, tonsure of Simon Magus) all the hair in front of a line drawn over the top of the head from ear to ear was shaven (a fashion common among the Hindus). The question of the Roman or Celtic tonsure was one of the points in dispute in the early British Church, settled in favour of the Roman fashion at the Council of Whitby (664). The tonsure at first was never given separately, and even children when so dedicated were appointed readers, as no one could belong to the clerical state without at least a minor order. From the 7th century, however, children were tonsured without ordination, and later on adults anxious to escape secular jurisdiction were often tonsured without ordination. Till the loth century the tonsure could be given by priests or even by laymen, but its bestowal was gradually restricted to bishops and abbots. TONTINE, a system of life insurance owing its name to Lorenzo Tonti, an Italian banker, born at Naples early in the i7th century, who settled in France about 1650. In 1653 he proposed to Cardinal Mazarin a new scheme for promoting a public loan. A total of 1,025,000 livres was to be subscribed in ten portions of 102,500 livres each by ten classes of subscribers, the first class consisting of persons under 7, the second of persons above 7 and under 14, and so on to the tenth, which consisted of persons between 63 and 70. The annual fund of each class was to be divided among the survivors of that class, and on the death of the last individual the capital was to fall to the state. This plan of operations was authorized under the name of "tontine royale" by a royal edict, but this the parlement refused to register, and the idea remained in abeyance till 1689, when it was revived by Louis XIV., who established a tontine of 1,400,000 livres divided into fourteen classes of 100,000 each, the subscription being 300 livres. This tontine was carried on till 1726, when the last bene- ficiary died — a widow who at the time of her decease was drawing an annual income of 73,500 livres. Several other government tontines were afterwards set on foot; but in 1763 restrictions were introduced, and in 1770 all tontines at the time in existence were wound up. Private tontines continued to flourish in France for some years, the " tontine Lefarge," the most cele- brated of the kind, being operled in 1791 and closed in 1889. The tontine principle has often been applied in Great Britain, at one time in connexion with government life annuities. Many such tontines were set on foot between the years 1773 and 1789, those of 1773, 1775 and 1777 being commonly called the Irish tontines, as the money was borrowed under acts of the Irish parlia- ment. The most important English tontine was that of 1789, which was created by 29 Geo. III. c. 41. Under this act over a million was raised in 10,000 shares of £100, 53. It was also often applied to the purchase of estates or the erection of buildings. The investor staked his money on the chance of his own life or the life of his nominee enduring for a longer period than the other lives involved in the speculation, in which case he expected to win a large prize. It was occasionally introduced into life assurance, more particularly by American life offices, but newer and more ingenious forms of contract fiave now made the tontine principle practically a thing of the past. (See NATIONAL DEBT; INSURANCE.) TOOKE, J. H. TOOKE, JOHN HORNE (1736-1812), English politician and philologist, third son of John Home, a poulterer in Newport Market, whose business the boy when at Eton happily veiled under the title of a " Turkey merchant," was born in Newport Street, Long Acre, Westminster, on the 25th of June 1736. After passing some time at school in Soho Square, and at a Kentish village, he went from 1744 to 1746 to Westminster School and for the next five or six years was at Eton. On the 1 2th of January 1754 he was admitted as sizar at St John's College, Cambridge, and took his degree of B.A. in 1758, as last but one of the senior optimes, Richard Beadon, his lifelong friend, afterwards bishop of Bath and Wells, being a wrangler in the same year. Home had been admitted on the 9th of November 1756, as student at the Inner Temple, making the friendship of John Dunning and Lloyd Kenyon, but his father wished him to take orders in the English Church, and he was ordained deacon on the 23rd of September 1759 and priest on the 23rd of November 1760. For a few months he was usher at a boarding school at Blackheath, but on the 26th of September 1760 he became perpetual curate of New Brentford, the incumbency of which his father had purchased for him, and he retained its scanty profits until 1773. During a part of this time (1763-1764) he was absent on a tour in France, acting as the bear-leader of a son of the miser Elwes. Under the excitement created by the actions of Wilkes, Home plunged into politics, and in 1765 brought out a scathing pamphlet on Lords Bute and Mansfield, entitled " The Petition of an Englishman." In the autumn of 1765 he escorted to Italy the son of a Mr Taylor. In Paris he made the acquaintance of Wilkes, and from Montpellier, in January 1766, addressed a letter to him which sowed the seeds of their personal antipathy. In the summer of 1767 Home landed again on English soil, and in 1768 secured the return of Wilkes to parliament for Middlesex. With inexhaustible energy he promoted the legal proceedings over the riot in St George's Fields, when a youth named Allen was killed, and exposed the irregularity in the judge's order for the execution of two Spital- fields weavers. His dispute with George Onslow, member for Surrey, who at first supported and then threw over Wilkes for place, culminated in a civil action, ultimately decided, after the reversal of a verdict which had been obtained through the charge of Lord Mansfield, in Home's favour, and in the loss by his opponent of his seat in parliament. An influential association, called " The Society for Supporting the Bill of Rights," was founded, mainly through the exertions of Home, in 1769, but the members were soon divided into two opposite camps, and in 1771 Home and Wilkes, their respective leaders, broke out into open warfare, to the damage of their cause. On the ist of July 1771 Home obtained at Cambridge, though not without some opposition from members of both the political parties, his degree of M.A. Earlier in that year he claimed for the public the right of printing an account of the debates in parliament, and after a protracted struggle between the ministerial majority and the civic authorities, the right was definitely established. The energies of the indefatigable parson knew no bounds. In the same year (1771) he crossed swords with Junius, and ended in disarming his masked antagonist. Up to this time Home's fixed income consisted of those scanty emoluments attached to a position which galled him daily. He resigned his benefice in 1773 and betook himself to the study of the law and philology. An accidental circumstance, however, occurred at this moment which largely affected his future. His friend Mr William Tooke had purchased a considerable estate, including Purley Lodge, south of the town of Croydon in Surrey. The possession of this property brought about frequent disputes with an ad- joining landowner, Thomas de Grey, and, after many actions in the courts, his friends endeavoured to obtain, by a bill forced through the houses of parliament, the privileges which the law had not assigned to him (February 1774). Home, thereupon, by a bold libel on the Speaker, drew public atten- tion to the case, and though he himself was placed for a time in the custody of the serjeant-at-arms, the clauses which were injurious to the interest of Mr Tooke were eliminated from the bill. Mr Tooke declared his intention of making Home the heir of his fortune, and, if the design was never carried into effect, during his lifetime he bestowed upon him large gifts of money. No sooner had this matter been happily settled than Home found himself involved in serious trouble. For his conduct in signing the advertisement soliciting subscriptions for the relief of the relatives of the Americans " murdered by the king's troops at Lexington and Concord," he was tried at the Guildhall on the 4th of July 1777, before Lord Mansfield, found guilty, and committed to the King's Bench prison in St George's Fields, from which he only emerged after a year's durance, and after a loss in fines and costs amounting to £1200. Soon after his deliverance he applied to be called to the bar, but his application was negatived on the ground that his orders in the Church were indelible. Home thereupon tried his fortune, but without success, on farming some land in Hunting- donshire. Two tracts about this time exercised great influence in the country. One of them, Fads Addressed to Landholders, &c. (1780), written by Home in conjunction with others, criticizing the measures of Lord North's ministry, passed through numerous editions; the other, A Letter on Parliamentary Reform (1782), addressed by him to Dunning, set out a scheme of reform, which he afterwards withdrew in favour of that advocated by Pitt. On his return from Huntingdonshire he became once more a frequent guest at Mr Tooke's house at Purley, and in 1782 assumed the name of Home Tooke. In 1786 Home Tooke conferred perpetual fame upon his bene- factor's country house by adopting, as a second title of his elaborate philological treatise of "Eirta impoevTa, the more popular though misleading title of The Diversions of Purley. The treatise at once attracted attention in England and the Continent. The first part was published in 1786, the second in 1805. The best edition is that which was published in 1829, under the editorship of Richard Taylor, with the additions written in the author's interleaved copy. Between 1782 and 1790 Tooke gave his support to Pitt, and in the election for Westminster, in 1784, threw all his energies into opposition to Fox. With Fox he was never on terms of friendship, and Samuel Rogers, in his Table Talk, asserts that their antipathy was so pronounced that at a dinner party given by a prominent Whig not the slightest notice was taken by Fox of the presence of Home Tooke. It was after the election of Westminster in 1788 that Tooke depicted the rival statesmen (Lord Chatham and Lord Holland, William Pitt and C. J. Fox) in his celebrated pamphlet of Two Pair of Portraits. At the general election of 1790 he came forward as a candidate for that distinguished constituency, in opposition to Fox and Lord Hood, but was defeated; and, at a second trial in 1796, he was again at the bottom of the poll. Meantime the excesses of the French republicans had provoked reaction in England, and the Tory ministry adopted a policy of repression. Home Tooke was arrested early on the morning of the i6th of May 1794, and conveyed to the Tower. His trial for high treason lasted for six days (i7th to 22nd of November) and ended in his acquittal, the jury only taking eight minutes to settle their verdict. His public life after this event was only distinguished by one act of importance. Through the influence of the second Lord Camel- ford, the fighting peer, he was returned to parliament in 1801 for the pocket borough of Old Sarum. Lord Temple endeavoured to secure his exclusion on the ground that he had taken orders in the Church, and one of Gilray's caricatures delineates the two politicians, Temple and Camelford, playing at battledore and shuttlecock, with Home Tooke as the shuttlecock. The ministry of Addington would not support this suggestion, but a bill was at once introduced by them and carried into law, which rendered all persons in holy orders ineligible to sit in the House of Commons, and Home Tooke sat for that parliament only. The last years of Tooke's life were spent in retirement in a house on the west side of Wimbledon Common. The traditions of his Sunday parties have lasted unimpaired to this day, and the most pleasant pages penned by his biographer describe the. politicians and the men of letters who gathered round his 14 hospitable board. His conversational powers rivalled those of Dr Johnson; and, if more of his sayings have not been chronicled for the benefit of posterity, the defect is due to the absence of a Boswell. Through the liberality of his friends, his last days were freed from the pressure of poverty, and he was enabled to place his illegitimate son in a position which soon brought him wealth, and to leave a competency to his two illegitimate daughters. Illness seized him early in 1810, and for the next two years his sufferings were acute. He died in his house at Wimbledon on the i8th of March 1812, and his body was buried with that of his mother at Baling, the tomb which he had prepared in the garden attached to his house at Wimbledon being found unsuitable for the interment. An altar-tomb still stands to his memory in Ealing churchyard. A catalogue of his library was printed in 1813. The Life of Horne Tooke, by Alexander Stephens, is written in an unattractive style and was the work of an admirer only admitted to his acquaintance at the close of his days. The notice in the Quarterly Review, June 1812, of W. Hamilton Reid's compilation, is by J. W. Ward, Lord Dudley. The main facts of his life are set out by Mr J. E. Thorold Rogers, in his Historical Gleanings, 2nd series. Many of Horne Tooke 's wittiest sayings are preserved in the Table Talk of Samuel Rogers and S. T. Coleridge. (W. P. C.) TOOKE, THOMAS (1774-1858), English economist, was born at St Petersburg on the 2Qth of February 1774. Entering a large Russian house in London at an early age, he acquired sound practical experience of commercial matters and became a recognized authority on finance and banking. He was one of the earliest advocates of free trade and drew up the Merchants' Petition presented to the House of Commons by Alexander Baring, afterwards Lord Ashburton. He gave evidence before several parliamentary committees, notably the committee of 1821, on foreign trade, and those of 1832, 1840 and 1848 on the Bank Acts. He was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1821. He died in London on the 26th of February 1858. Tooke was the author of Thoughts and Details on the High and Low Prices of the last Thirty Years (1823), Considerations on the State of the Currency (1826), in both of which he showed his hostility to the policy afterwards carried out in the Bank Act of 1844, but he is best known for his History of Prices and of the State of the Circulation during the Years 1703-1856 (6 vols., 1838-1857). In the first four volumes he treats (a) of the prices of corn, and the circumstances affecting prices; (b) the prices of produce other than corn; and (c) the state of the circulation. The two final volumes, written in conjunction with W. Newmarch (q.v.), deal with railways, free trade, banking in Europe and the effects of new discoveries of gold. TOOL (O. Eng. 161, generally referred to a root seen in the Goth, taujan, to make, or in the English word " taw," to work or dress leather), an implement or appliance used by a worker in the treatment of the substances used in his handicraft, whether in the preliminary operations of setting out and measuring the materials, in reducing his work to the required form by cutting or otherwise, in gauging it and testing its accuracy, or in duly securing it while thus being treated. For the tools of prehistoric man see such articles as ARCHAEOLOGY ; FLINT IMPLEMENTS; and EGYPT, § Art and Archaeology. In beginning a survey of tools it is necessary to draw the distinction between hand and machine tools. The former class includes any tool which is held and operated by the unaided hands, as a chisel, plane or saw. Attach one of these to some piece of operating mechanism, and it, with the environment of which it is the central essential object, becomes a machine tool. A very simple example is the common power-driven hack saw for metal, or the small high-speed drill, or the wood-boring auger held in a frame and turned by a winch handle and bevel-gears. The difference between these and a big frame-saw cutting down a dozen boards simultaneously, or the immense machine boring the cylinders of an ocean liner, or the great gun lathe, or the hydraulic press, is so vast that the relationship is hardly apparent. Often the tool itself is absolutely dwarfed by the machine, of which nevertheless it is the central object and around which the machine is designed and built. A milling machine weighing several tons will often be seen rotating a tool of but two or three dozen pounds' weight. Yet the machine is fitted with elaborate slides and self-acting movements, and provision for taking up wear, TOOKE, T.— TOOL and is worth some hundreds of pounds sterling, while the tool may not be worth two pounds. Such apparent anomalies are in constant evidence. We propose, therefore, first to take a survey of the principles that underlie the forms of tools, and then pursue the subject of their embodiment in machine tools. HAND TOOLS The most casual observation reveals the fact that tools admit of certain broad classifications. It is apparent that by far the larger number owe their value to their capacity for cutting or removing portions of material by an incisive or wedge-like action, leaving a smooth surface behind. An analysis of the essential methods of operation gives a broad grouping as follows: — I. The chisel group . . Typified by the chisel of the woodworker. II. The shearing group . „ „ scissors. III. The scrapers . . „ „ cabinet-maker's scrape. IV" ThdeetrrjveSgiVoeuP ^ \ " " "" and the I"™*- V. The moulding group . „ „ trowel. The first three are generally all regarded as cutting tools, notwithstanding that those in II. and III. do not operate as wedges, and therefore are not true chisels. But many occupy a border-line where the results obtained are practically those due to cutting, as in some of the shears, saws, milling cutters, files and grinding wheels, where, if the action is not directly wedge-like, it is certainly more or less incisive in character. Cutting Tools. — The cutting edge of a tool is the practical outcome of several conditions. Keenness of edge, equivalent to a small degree of angle between the tool faces, would appear at first sight to be the prime element in cutting, as indeed it is in the case of a razor, or in that of a chisel for soft wood. But that is not the prime condition in a tool for cutting iron or steel. Strength is of far greater importance, and to it some keenness of edge must be sacri- ficed. All cutting tools are wedges; but a razor or a chisel edge, included between angles of 15° or 20°, would be turned over at once if presented to iron or steel, for which angles of from 60° to 75° are required. Further, much greater rigidity in the latter, to resist spring and fracture, is necessary than in the former, because the resistance to cutting is much greater. A workman can operate a turning tool by hand, even on heavy pieces of metal-work. Formerly all turning, no matter how large, was done by hand-operated tools, and after great muscular exertion a few pounds of metal might be removed in an hour. But coerce a similarly formed tool in a rigid guide or rest, and drive it by the power of ten or twenty men, and it becomes possible to remove say a hundredweight of chips in an hour. Or, increase the size of the tool and its capacity for endurance, and drive by the power of 40 or 60 horses, and half a ton of chips may be removed in an hour. All machine tools of which the chisel is the type operate by cutting ; that is, they act on the same principle and by the same essential method as the knife, razor or chisel, and not by that of the grind- stone. A single tool, however, may act as a cutting instrument at one time and as a scrape at another. The butcher's knife will afford a familiar illustration. It is used as a cutting tool when sever- ing a steak, but it becomes a scrape when used to clean the block. The difference is not therefore due to the form of the knife, but to the method of its application, a distinction which holds good in reference to the tools used by engineers. There is a very old hand too} once much used in the engineer's turnery, termed a graver." This was employed for cutting and for scraping indiscriminately, simply by varying the angle of its presentation. At that time the question of the best cutting angles was seldom raised or discussed, because the manipulative instinct of the turner settled it as the work pro- ceeded, and as the material operated on varied in texture and degree of hardness. But since the use of the slide rest holding tools rigidly fixed has become general, the question of the most suitable tool formation has been the subject of much experiment and discussion. The almost unconscious experimenting which goes on every day in every workshop in the world proves that there may be a difference of several degrees of angle in tools doing similar work, without having any appreciable effect upon results. So long as certain broad principles and reasonable limits are observed, that is sufficient for practical purposes. Clearly, in order that a tool shall cut, it must possess an incisive form. In fig. I, A might be thrust over the surface of the plate of metal, but no cutting action could take place. It would simply grind and polish the surface. If it were formed like B, the grinding action would give place to scraping, by which some material would be removed. Many tools are formed thus, but there is still no incisive or knife-like action, and the tool is simply a scrape and not a cutting tool. But C is a cutting tool, possessing penetrative capacity. If now B were tilted backwards as at D, it would at HAND TOOLS] TOOL once become a cutting tool. But its bevelled face would rub and grind on the surface of the work, producing friction and heat, and interfering with the penetrative action of the cutting edge. On the other hand, if C were tilted forwards as at E its action would approximate to that of a scrape for the time being. But the high angle of the hinder bevelled face would not afford adequate support to the cutting edge, and the latter would therefore become worn off almost instantly, precisely as that of a razor or wood-working chise! would crumble away if operated on hard metal. It is obvious FIG. i. A, Tool which would burnish F, G, H, Presentations of tools only. for planing, turning and B, Scrape. boring respectively. C, Cutting tool. J, K, L, Approximate angles of D and E, Scraping and cutting tools; a, clearance angle, or tools improperly presented. bottom rake ; b, front or top rake; c, tool angle. therefore that the correct forirt for a cutting tool must depend upon a due balance being maintained between the angle of the front and of the bottom faces — " front " or " top rake," and "bottom rake " or " clearance " — considered in regard to their method of presentation to the work. Since, too, all tools used in machines are held rigidly in one position, differing in this respect from hand- operated tools, it follows that a constant angle should be given to instruments which are used for operating on a given kind of metal or alloy. It does not matter whether a tool is driven in a lathe, or a planing machine, or a sharper or a slotter; whether it is cutting on external or internal surfaces, it is always maintained in a direction perpendicularly to the point of application as in fig. I, F, G, H, planing, turning and boring respectively. It is consistent with reason and with fact that the softer and more fibrous the metal, the keener must be the formation of the tool, and that, conversely, the harder and more crystalline the metal the more obtuse must be the cutting angles, as in the extremes of the razor and the tools for cutting iron and steel already instanced. The three figures J, K, L show tools suitably formed, for wrought iron and mild steel, for cast iron and cast steel, and for brass respectively. Cast iron and cast steel could not be cut properly with the first, nor wrought iron and fibrous steel with the second, nor either with the third. The angles given are those which accord best with general practice, but they are not constant, being varied by conditions, especially by lubrication and rigidity of fastenings. The profiles of the first and second tools are given mainly with the view of having material for grinding away, without the need for frequent reforgmg. But there are many tools which are formed quite differently when used in tool-holders and in turrets, though the same essential principles of angle are observed. The angle of clearance, or relief, a, in fig. I, is an important detail of a cutting tool. It is of greater importance than an exact angle of top rake. But, given some sufficient angle of clearance, its exact amount is not of much moment. Neither need it be uniform for a given cutting edge. It may vary from say 3° to 10°, or even 20°, and under good conditions little or no practical differences will result. Actually it need never vary much from 5° to 7°. The object in giving a clearance angle is simply to prevent friction between the non-cutting face immediately adjacent to the edge and the surface of the work. The limit to this clearance is that at which insufficient support is afforded to the cutting edge. These are the two facts, which if fulfilled permit of a considerable range in clear- ance angle. The softer the metal being cut the greater can be the clearance; the harder the material the less clearance is permissible because the edge requires greater support. The front, or top rake, b in fig. I, is the angle or slope of the front, or top face, of the tool; it is varied mainly according as materials are crystalline or fibrous. In the turnings and cuttings taken off the more crystalline metals and alloys, the broken appearance of the chips is distinguished from the shavings removed from the fibrous materials. This is a feature which always distinguishes cast iron and unannealed cast steel from mild steel, high carbon steel from that low in carbon, and cast iron from wrought iron. It indicates too that extra work is put on the tool in breaking up the chips, following immediately on their severance, and when the comminu- tions are very small they indicate insufficient top rake. This is a result that turners try to avoid when possible, or at least to minimize. Now the greater the slope of the top rake the more easily will the cuttings come away, with the minimum of break in the crystalline materials and absolutely unbroken over lengths of many feet in the fibrous ones. The breaking up, or the continuity of the cuttings, therefore affords an indication of the suitability of the amount of top rake to its work. But compromise often has to be made between the ideal and the actual. The amount of top rake has to be limited in the harder metals and alloys in order to secure a strong tool angle, without which tools would lack the endur- ance required to sustain them through several hours without regrinding. The too/ angle, c, is the angle included between top and bottom faces, and its amount, or thickness expressed in degrees, is a measure of the strength and endurance of any tool. At extremes it varies from about 15° to 85°. It is traceable in all kinds of tools, having very diverse forms. It is difficult to place some groups in the cutting category; they are on the border-line between cutting and scraping instruments. Typical Tools. — A bare enumeration of the diverse forms in which tools of the chisel type occur is not even possible here. The grouped illustrations (figs. 2 to 6) show some of the types, but it will be understood that each is varied in dimensions, angles and outlines to suit all the varied kinds of metals and alloys and conditions of operation. For, as every tool has to be gripped in a holder of some kind, as a slide-rest, tool-box, turret, tool-holder, box, cross-slide, &c., this often determines the choice of some one form in preference to another. A broad division is that into roughing and finishing FIG. 2. — Metal-turning Tools. A , Shape of tool used for scrap- E, Diamond or angular-edge tool ing brass. for cutting all metals. B, Straightforward tool for turn- F, Plan of finishing tool. ing all metals. G, Spring tool for finishing. C, Right- and left-hand tools for H, Side or knife tool. all metals. J, Parting or cutting-off tool. D, A better form of same. K, L, Round-nose tools. M, Radius tool. FIG. 3. — Group of Planer Tools. Planer type of tool, cranked E, Parting or cutting-off or grooving tool. F, V tool for grooves. G, Right- and left-hand tools for V-slots. H , Ditto for T-slots. /, Radius tool held in holder. to avoid digging into the metaj. B, Face view of roughing tool. C, Face view of finishing tool. D, Right- and left-hand knife or side tools. i6 TOOL [HAND TOOLS tools. Generally though not invariably the edge of the first is narrow, of the second broad, corresponding with the deep cutting and fine traverse of the first and the shallow cutting and broad B I FIG. 4. — Group of Slotter Tools. A, Common roughing tool. B, Parting-off or grooving tool. C, Roughing or finishing tool in a holder. D, Double-edged tool for cutting opposite sides of a slot. FIG. 5. — Group of Tool-holders. A, Smith & Coventry swivelling holder. B, Holder for square steel. C, D, right- and left-hand forms of same. E, Holder for round steel. F, Holder for narrow parting-off tool. traverse of the second. The following are some of the principal forms. The round-nosed roughing tool (fig. 2) B is of straight- forward type, used for turning, planing and shaping. As the correct tool angle can only occur on the middle plane of the tool, it is usual to employ cranked tools, C, D, E, right- and left-handed, for heavy and moderately heavy duty, the direction of the crank- ing corresponding with that in which the tool is required to traverse. Tools for boring are cranked and many for planing (fig. 3). The slotting tools (fig. 4) embody the same principle, but their shanks are in line with the direction of cutting. Many roughing and finishing tools are of knife type H. Finishing tools have broad edges, F, G, H. They occur in straightforward and right- and left-hand types. These as a rule remove less than FIG. 6. — Group of Chisels. A, Paring chisel. B, Socket chisel for heavy duty. C, Common chipping chisel. in. in depth, while the rough- ing tools may cut an inch or D, Narrow cross-cut or cape chisel, more into the metal. But the E, Cow-mouth chisel, or gouge. traverse of the first often exceeds F, Straight chisel or sett. C, Hollow chisel or sett. an inch, while in that of the second J in. is a yery coarse amount of feed. Spring tools, G, used less now than formerly, are only of value for imparting a smooth finish to a surface. They are finishing tools only. Some spring tools are formed with considerable top rake, but generally they act by scraping only. Solid Tools v. Tool-holders. — It will be observed that the fore- going are solid tools ; that is, the cutting portion is forged from a solid bar of steel. This is costly when the best tool steel is used, hence large numbers of tools comprise points only, which are gripped in permanent holders in which they interchange. _ Tool^ steel usually ranges from about J in. to 4 in. square; most engineers' work is done with bars of from J in. to li in. square. It is in the smaller and medium sizes of tools that holders prove of most value. Solid tools, varying from 2\ in. to 4 in. square, a,re used for the heaviest cutting done in the planing machine. Tool-holders are not employed for very heavy work, because the heat generated would not get away fast enough from small tool points. There are scores of holders; per- haps a dozen good approved types are in common use. They are divisible into three great groups: those in which the top rake of the tool point is embodied in the holder, and is constant; those in which the clearance is similarly embodied; and those in which neither is provided for, but in which the tool point is ground to any angle. Charles Babbage designed the first tool-holder, and the essential type survives in several modern forms. The best-known holders now are the Tangye, the Smith & Coventry, the Armstrong, some by Mr C. Taylor, and the Bent. The Smith & Coventry (fig. 5), used more perhaps than any other single design, includes two forms. In one E the tool is a bit of round steel set at an angle which gives front rake, and having the top end ground to an angle of top rake. In the other A the tool has the section of a truncated wedge, set for constant top rake, or cutting angle, and having bottom rake or clearance angle ground. The Smith & Coventry round tool is not applicable for all classes of work. It will turn plain work, and plane level faces, but will not turn or plane into corners or angles. Hence the invention of the tool of V-section, and the swivel tool- holder. The round tool-holders are made right- and left-handed, the swivel tool-holder has a universal movement. The amount of projection of the round tool points is very limited, which impairs their utility when some overhanging of the tool is necessary. The V-tooIs can be slid out in their holders to operate on faces and edges situated to some considerable distance inwards from the end of the tool-holder. Box Tools. — In one feature the box tools of the turret lathes resemble tool-holders. The small pieces of steel used for tool points are gripped in the boxes, as in tool-holders, and all the advantages which are derived from this arrangement of separating the point from its holder are thus secured (fig. 7). But in all other FIG. 7.— Box Tool for Turret Lathe. (Alfred Herbert, Ltd., Coventry.) A, Cutting tool. B, Screw for adjusting radius of cut. C C, V-steadies supporting the work in opposition to A. D, Diameter of work. E, Body of holder. F, Stem which fits in the turret. respects the two are dissimilar. Two or three tool-holders of different sizes take all the tool points used in a lathe, but a new box has to- be devised in the case of almost every new job, with the exception of those the principal formation of which is the turning down of plain bars. The explanation is that, instead of a single point, several are commonly carried in a box. As complexity increases with the number of tools, new designs and dimensions of boxes become necessary, even though there may be family resemblances in groups. A result is that there is not, nor can there be: anything like finality in these designs. Turret work has become one of the most highly specialized departments of machine-shop practice, and the design of these boxes is already the work of specialists. More and more of the work of the common lathe is being constantly appropriated by the semi- and full-automatic machines, a result to which the magazine feeds for castings and forgings that cannot pass through a hollow spindle have contributed greatly. New work is constantly being attacked in the automatic machines that was deemed impracticable a short time before ; some of the commoner jobs are produced with greater economy, while heavier castings and forgings, longer and larger bars, are tooled in the turret lathes. A great deal of the efficiency of the box tools is due to the support which is afforded to the cutting edges in opposition to the stress of cutting. V-blocks are introduced in most cases as in fig. 7, and these not only resist the stress of the cutting, but gauge the diameter exactly. Shearing Action. — In many tools a shearing operation takes place, by which the stress of cutting is lessened. Though not very apparent, it is present in the round-nosed roughing tools, in the knife tools, in most milling cutters, as well as in all the shearing tools proper — the scissors, shears, &c. Planes. — We pass by the familiar great chisel group, used by wood- workers, with a brief notice. Generally the tool angles of these lie between 15° and 25°. They include the chisels proper, and the gouges in numerous shapes and proportions, used by carpenters, HAND TOOLS] TOOL cabinet-makers, turners, stone-masons and allied tradesmen. These are mostly thrust by hand to their work, without any mechanical control. Other chisels are used percussively, as the stout mortise chisels, some of the gouges, the axes, adzes and stone-mason's tools. The large family of planes embody chisels coerced by the mechanical control of the wooden (fig. 8) or metal stock. These also differ FIG. 8. — Section through Plane. A, Cutting iron. B, Top or back iron. C, Clamping screw. D, Wedge. E, Broken shaving. F, Mouth. from the chisels proper in the fact that the face of the cutting iron does not coincide with the face of the material being cut, but lies at an angle therewith, the stock of the plane exercising the necessary coercion. We also meet with the function of the top or non-cutting B 'c 'D 'E^ " 'F' FIG. 9. — Group of Wood-boring Bits. A, Spoon bit. B, Centre-bit. C, Expanding centre-bit. Gilpin or Gedge auger. E, Jennings auger. ' F, Irwin auger. D. IT a i F k \ I HI 1 1 Tl it — i — \ 1 FIG. 10. — Group of Drills for Metal. A, Common flat drill. 5, Twist drill. C, Straight fluted drill. D, Pin drill for flat countersinking. E, Arboring or facing tool. F.. Tool for boring sheet-metal. iron in breaking the shaving and conferring rigidity upon the cutting iron. This rigidity is of similar value in cutting wood as in cutting metal though in a less marked degree. Drilling and Boring Tools. — Metal and timber are bored with equal facility; the tools (figs. 9 and 10) embody similar differences to the cutting tools already instanced for wood and metal. All the wood- working bits are true cutting tools, and their angles, if analysed, will be found not to differ much from those of the razor and common chisel. The drills for metal furnish examples both of scrapers and cutting tools. The common drill is only a scraper, but all the twist drills cut with good incisive action. An advantage possessed by all drills is that the cutting forces are balanced on each side of the centre of rotation. The same action is embodied in the best wood- boring bits and augers, as the Jennings, the Gilpin and the Irwin — much improved forms of the old centre-bit. But the balance is impaired if the lips are not absolutely symmetrical about the centre. This explains the necessity for the substitution of machine grinding for hand grinding of the lips, and great developments of twist drill grinding machines. Allied to the drills are the D-bits, and the reamers (fig. n). The first-named both initiate and finish a hole; B FIG. II. A, D-bit. B, Solid reamer. C, Adjustable reamer, having six flat blades forced outward by the tapered plug. Two lock-nuts at the end fix the blades firmly after adjustment. the second are used only for smoothing and enlarging drilled holes, and for correcting holes which pass through adjacent castings or plates. The reamers remove only a mere film, and their action is that of scraping. The foregoing are examples of tools operated from one end and unsupported at the other, except in so far as they receive support within the work. One of the objectionable features of tools operated in this way is that they tend to " follow the hole," and if this is cored, or rough-drilled out of truth, there is risk of the boring tools following it to some extent at least. With the one exception of the D-bit there is no tool which can be relied on to take out a long bore with more than an approximation to concentricity throughout. Boring tools (fig. 12) held in the slide-rest will spring and bend and chatter, and unless the lathe is true, or careful com- pensation is made for its want of truth, they will bore bigger at one end than the other. Boring tools thrust by the back centre are liable to wabble, and though they are variously coerced to prevent them from turning round, that does not check the to-and-fro wabbly FIG. 12. — Group of Boring Tools. A, Round boring tool held in V-blocks on slide-rest. B, C, Square and V-pointed boring tools. D, Boring bar with removable cutters, held straight, or angularly. motion from following the core, or rough bore. In a purely reaming tool this is permitted, but it is not good in tools that have to initiate the hole. This brings us to the large class of boring tools which are supported at each end by being held in bars carried between centres. There are two main varieties: in one the cutters are fixed directly in the bar (fig. 13, A to D), in the other in a head fitted on the bar i8 TOOL [HAND TOOLS (fig. 13, E), hence termed a " boring head." As lathe heads are fixed, the traverse cannot be imparted to the bars as in boring machines. The boring heads can be traversed, or the work can be FIG. 13. — Group of Supported Boring Tools. A, Single-ended cutter in boring bar. B, Double-ended ditto. C, Flat single-ended finishing cutter. D, Flat double-ended finishing cutter. E, Boring head with three cutters and three steady blocks. traversed by the* mechanism of the lathe saddle. The latter must be done when cutters are fixed in bars. A great deal of difference exists in the details of the fittings both of bars and heads, but they are not so arbitrary as they might seem at first sight. The principal differences are those due to the number of cutters used, their shapes, and their method of fastening. Bars receiving their cutters direct include one, two or four, cutting on opposite sides, and therefore balanced. Four give better balance than two, the cutters being set at right angles. If a rough hole runs out of truth, a single cutter is better than a double-ended one, provided a tool of the roughing shape is used. The shape of the tools varies from roughing to finishing, and their method of attachment is by screws, wedges or nuts, but we cannot illustrate the numerous differences that are met with. Saws. — The saws are a natural connecting link between the chisels and the milling cutters. Saws are used for wood, metal and stone. Slabs of steel several inches I in thickness are sawn through as readily as, though more slowly than, timber planks. Circular and band saws are common in the smithy and the boiler and machine shops for cutting off bars, forgings and rolled sections. But the tooth shapes are not those used for timber, nor is the cutting speed the same. In the individual saw-teeth both cutting and scraping actions are illustrated (fig. 14). Saws which cut tim- ber continuously with the grain, as rip, hand, band, circular, have incisive teeth. For though many are desti- tute of front rake, the method of sharpening at an angle imparts a true shearing cut. But all cross- cutting teeth scrape only, the teeth being either of triangular or of M-form, variously modified. Teeth for metal cutting also act strictly by scraping. The pitching of the teeth is related to the nature of the material and the for timber than for metal, AA7VAA nrtnnn FIG. 14.— Typical Saw Teeth. Teeth of band and ripping saws. Teeth of circular saw for hard wood shows set. Ditto for soft wood. D, Teeth of cross-cut saw. E, M-teeth for ditto. A B C, direction of cutting. It is coarser coarser for ripping or sawing with the grain than forVross' cutting,' coarser for soft than for hard woods. The setting of teeth or the bending over to right and left, by which the clearance is provided for the blade of the saw, is subject to similar variations. It is greatest for soft woods and least for metals, where in fact the clearance is often secured without set, by merely thinning But it is greater for cross cutting than for the blade backwards. ripping timber. Gulleting follows similar rules. The softer the timber, the greater the gulleting, to permit the dust to escape freely. Milling Cutters. — Between a circular saw for cutting metal and a thin milling cutter there is no essential difference. Increase the thickness as if to produce a very wide saw, and the essential plain edge milling cutter for metal results. In its simplest form the milling cutter is a cylinder with teeth lying across its periphery, or parallel with its axis — the edge tnill (fig. 15), or else a disk with teeth radiating on its face, or at right angles with its axis — the end mill (fig. 16). Each is used indifferently for producing flat faces and edges, and for cutting grooves which are rectangular in cross-section. These milling cutters invade the province of the single-edged tools of the planer, shaper and slotter. Of these two typical forms the FIG. 15. — Group of Milling Cutters, mill, with A, Narrow edge straight teeth. B, Wide edge mill with spiral teeth. C, Teeth on face and edges. D, Cutter having teeth like C. E, Flat teeth held in with screws and wedges. F, Large inserted tooth mill; with taper pins secure cutters. FIG. 16.— Group of End Mills. /• cV • Wlth stra'ght teeth. B, Ditto with spiral teeth. C, bhowing method of holding shell cutter on arbor, with screw and key. D, T-slot cutter. HAND TOOLS] TOOL changes are rung in great variety, ranging from the narrow slitting tools which saw off bars, to the broad cutters of 24 in. or more in width, used on piano-millers. When more than about an inch in width, surfacing cylindrical cutters are formed with spiral teeth (fig. 15, B), a device which is A, Straddle Mill, cutting faces and edges. B, Set of three mills cutting grooves. FIG. 18. — Group of Angular Mills. A, Cutter with single slope. B, Ditto, producing teeth in another cutter. C, Double Slope Mill, with unequal angles. essential to sweetness of operation, the action being that of shearing. These have their teeth cut on universal machines, using the dividing and spiral head and suitable change wheels, and after hardening they are sharpened on universal grinders. When cutters exceed about 6 in. in length the difficulties of hardening and grinding render the " gang " arrangement more suitable. Thus, two, three or more similar edge mills are set end to end on an arbor, with the spiral teeth running in reverse directions, giving a broad face with balanced endlong cutting forces. From these are built up the numerous gang mills, comprising plane faces at right angles with each other, of which the straddle mills are the best known (fig. 17, A). A common element in these combinations is the key seat type B having teeth on the periphery and on both faces as in fig. 15, C, D. By these combinations half a dozen faces or more can be tooled simul- taneously, and all alike, as long as the mills retain their edge. The advantages over the work of the planer in this class of work are seen in tooling the faces and edges of machine tables, beds and slides, in shaping the faces and edges of caps to fit their bearing blocks. In a single cutter of the face type, but having teeth on back and edge also, T-slots are readily milled (fig. 1 6, D) ; this if done on the planer would require re-settings of awkwardly cranked tools, and more measurement and testing with templets than is required on a milling machine. When angles, curves and profile sections are introduced, the capacity of the milling cutter is infinitely increased. The making of the cutters is also more difficult. Angular cutters (fig. 18) are used for producing the teeth of the mills themselves, for shaping the teeth of ratchet wheels, and, in combination with straight cutters in gangs, for angular sections. With curves, or angles and curves in combination, taps, reamers and drills can be fluted or grooved, the teeth of wheels shapeo!, and in fact any outlines imparted (fig. 19). Here the work of the fitter, as well as that of the planing and allied machines, is invaded, for much of this work if prepared on these machines would have to be finished laboriously by the file. There are two ways in which milling cutters are used, by which their value is extended; one is to transfer some of their work proper to the lathe and boring machine, the other is by duplication. A good many light circular sections, i r FIG. 19. A, Convex Cutter. B, Concave Cutter. C, Profile Cutter. as wheel rims, hitherto done in lathes, are regularly prepared in the milling machine, gang mills being used for tooling the peri- phery and edges at once, and the wheel blank being rotated. Similarly, holes are bored by a rotating mill of the cylindrical type. Internal screw threads are done similarly. Duplication occurs when milling sprocket wheels in line, or side by side, in milling nuts on an arbor, in milling a number of narrow faces arranged side by side, in cutting the teeth of several spur-wheels on one arbor and m milling the teeth of racks several at a time. One of the greatest advances in the practice of milling was that of making backed-off cutters. The sectional shape behind the tooth face is continued identical in form with the profile of the edge, the outline being carried back as a curve equal in radius to that of the cutting edge (fig. 20). The result is that the cutter may be sharpened on the front faces of the teeth without interfering with the shape which willbe milled, because the periphery is always con- stant in outline. After re- peated sharpenings the teeth would assume the form indi- cated by the shaded portion on two of the teeth. The FlG. 2o.— Relieved Teeth of Milling limit of grinding is reached Cutter, when the tooth becomes too thin and weak to stand up to its work. But such cutters will endure weeks or months of constant service before becoming useless. The -/.CD FIG. 21. — Group of Scrapes. A, MetaJ- worker's scrape, pushed D, Diamond point used by straightforward. wood-turners. B, Ditto, operated laterally. E, F, Cabinet-makers' scrapes. C, Round-nosed tool used by wood-turners. chief advantage of backing-off or relieving is in its application to cutters of intricate curves, which would be difficult or impossible to sharpen along their edges. Such cutters, moreover, if made with A, Warding. B, Mill. C, Flat. D, Pillar. E, Square. F, G, Swaged reapers. H, Mill. FIG. 22. — Cross-sectional Shapes of Files. P, Q, J, Topping. K, Reaper. L, Knife. M, Three-square. N, Cant. 0, Slitting or feather-edge. ordinary teeth would soon be worn down, and be much weaker than the strong form of teeth represented in fig. 20. The relieving is usually done in special lathes, employing a profile tool which cuts the surface Round. Pit-saw or frame-saw. R, Half-round. 5, T, Cabinet. U, Tumbler. V, Crossing. -/I IfA H Ij UK L A , Parallel or blunt. B, Taper bellied. C, Knife reaper. D, Tapered square. E, Parallel triangular. FIG. 23. — Longitudinal Shapes of Files. F, Tapered triangular. K, Tapered half- G, Parallel round. round. H, Taper or rat-tail. L, Riffler. /, Parallel half- round. 20 of the teeth back at the required radius. Relieved cutters can of course be strung together on a single arbor to form gang mills, by which very complicated profiles may be tooled, beyond the capacity of a single solid mill. Scrapes. — The tools which operate by scraping (fig. 21) include many of the broad finishing tools of the turner in wood and metal (cf. fig. 2), and the scrape of the wood worker and the fitter. The practice of scraping surfaces true, applied to surface plates, machine slides and similar objects, was due to Sir Joseph Whitworth. It superseded the older and less accurate practice of grinding to a mutual fit. Now, with machines of precision, the practice of grinding has to a large extent displaced the more costly scraping. Scraping is, however, the only method available when the most perfect contact is desired. Its advantage lies in the fact that the efforts of the work- man can be localized over the smallest areas, and nearly infinitesimal amounts removed, a mere fine dust in the last stages. Files. — These must in strictness be classed with scrapes, for, although the points are keen, there is never any front rake. Collec- tively there is a shearing action because the rows of teeth are cut diagonally. The sectional forms (fig. 22) and the longitudinal forms (fig. 23) of the files are numerous, to adapt them to all classes of work. In addition, the method of cutting, and the degrees of coarseness of the teeth, vary, being single, or float cut, or double cut (fig. 24). The rasps are another group. Degrees of coarse- ness are designated as rough, middle cut, bastard cut, second cut, smooth, double dead smooth; the first named is the coarsest, the last the finest. The terms are relative, since the larger a file is the coarser are its teeth, though of the same name as the teeth in a shorter file, which are finer. Screwing Tools. — The forms of these will be found discussed under SCREW. They can scarcely be ranked among cutting tools, yet the best kinds remove metal with ease. This is due in great measure to the good clearance allowed, and to the narrowness of the cutting portions. Front rake is generally absent, though in some of the best screwing dies there is a slight amount. Shears and Punches. — These maybe of cutting or non-cutting types. Shears (fig. 25) have no front rake, but only a slight clearance. They a slight shearing cut, because the blades do not TOOL [HAND TOOLS FIG. 24.— File Teeth. A, B, Float cut. Double cut. C, Rasp cut. generally give _ _^_— lie parallel, but the cutting begins at one end and continues in detail to the other. But strictly the shears, like the punches, act by a I. I J FlG. 25. — Shear Blades. a, a, Blades. b, Plate being sheared. FIG. 26. — Punching. a, Punch, b, Bolster. c, Plate being punched. severe detrusive effort; for the punch, with its bolster (fig. 26), forms a pair of cylindrical shears. Hence a shorn or punched edge is always rough, ragged, and covered with minute, shallow cracks. Both processes are therefore dangerous to iron and steel. The metal being unequally stressed, fracture starts in the annulus of metal. Hence the advantage of the practice of reamering out this annulus, which is completely removed by enlargement by about an f in. diameter, so that homogeneous metal is left throughout the entire unpunched section. The same results follow reamering both in iron and steel. Annealing, according to many experiments, has the same effect as reamering, due to the rearrangement of the molecules of metal. The perfect practice with punched plates is to punch, reamer, and finally to anneal. The effect of shearing is practically identical with that of punching, and planing and annealing shorn edges has the same influence as reamering and annealing punched holes. Hammers. — These form an immense group, termed percussive, from the manner of their use (fig. 27). Every trade has its own peculiar shapes, the total of which number many scores, each with its own appropriate name, and ranging in size from the minute forms of the jeweler to the sledges of the smith and boiler maker and the planishing hammers of the coppersmith. Wooden hammers are termed mallets, their purpose being to avoid bruising tools or the surfaces of work. Most trades use mallets of some form or another. Hammer handles are rigid in all cases except certain percussive tools of the smithy, which are handled with withy rods, or iron rods flexibly attached to the tools, so that when struck by the sledge they shall not jar the hands. The fullering tools, and flatters, and setts, though not hammers strictly, are actuated by percussion. The dies of the die forgers are actuated percussively, being closed by powerful hammers. The action of caulking tools is percussive, and so is that of moulders' rammers. A, Exeter type. B, Joiner's hammer. JW KW I), FIG. 27. — Hammers. F, Ditto, straight pane. G, Sledge hammer, straight C, Canterbury claw hammer pane. (these are wood-workers' H, Ditto, double-faced, hammers). /, K, L, M, Boiler makers' ham- D, Engineer's hammer, ball pane. mers. E, Ditto, cross-pane. N, Scaling hammer. Moulding Tools. — This is a group of tools which, actuated either by simple pressure or percussively, mould, shape and model forms in the sand of the moulder, in the metal of the smith, and in press work. All the tools of the moulder (fig. 28) with the exception of the rammers and vent wires act by moulding the sand into shapes FIG. 28.— Moulding Tools. /, Button sleeker. K, Pipe smoother. A , Square trowel. E, Flange bead. B, Heart trowel. F, Hollow bead. C, D, Cleaners. G, H, Square corner sleekers. by pressure. Their contours correspond with the plane and curved surfaces of moulds, and with the requirements of shallow and deep work. They are made in iron and brass. The fullers, swages and flatters of the smith, and the dies used with hammer and presses, all mould by percussion or by pressure, the work taking the counter- part of the dies, or of some portion of them. The practice of die forging consists almost wholly of moulding processes. Tool Steels. — These now include three kinds. The common steel, the controlling element in which is carbon, requires to be hardened and tempered, and must not be overheated, about 500° F. being the highest temperature permissible- — the critical tempera- ture. Actually this is seldom allowed to be reached. The dis- advantage of this steel is that its capabilities are limited, because the heat generated by heavy cutting soon spoils the tools. The second is the Mushet steel, invented by R. F. Mushet in 1868, a carbon steel, in which the controlling element is tungsten, of which it contains from about ;> to 8%. It is termed self-hardening, because it is cooled in air instead of being quenched in water. Its value consists in its endurance at high temperatures, even at a low red heat. Until the advent of the high-speed steels, Mushet steel was reserved for all heavy cutting, and for tooling hard tough steels. It is made in six different tempers suitable for various kinds of duty. Tools of Mushet steel must not be forged below a red heat. It is hardened by reheating the end to a white heat, and blowing cold in an air blast. The third kind of steel is termed high-speed, because much higher cutting speeds are practicable with these than with other steels. Tools made of them are hardened in a blast of cold air. The controlling elements are numerous and vary in the practice of different manufacturers, to render the MACHINE TOOLS] TOOL 21 tools adaptable to cutting various classes of metals and alloys. Tungsten is the principal controlling element, but chromium is essential, and molybdenum and vanadium are often found of value. The steels are forged at a yellow tint, equal to about 1850° F. They are raised to a white heat for hardening, and copied in an air blast to a bright red. They are then often quenched in a bath of oil. The first public demonstration of the capacities of high speed steels was made at the Paris Exhibition of 1900. Since that time great advances have been made. It has been found that the section of the shaving limits the practicable speeds, so that, although cutting speeds of 300 and 400 ft. a minute are practicable with light cuts, it is more economical to limit speeds to less than 100 ft. per minute with much heavier cuts. The use of water is not absolutely essential as in using tools of carbon steel. The new steels show to much greater advantage on mild steel than on cast iron. They are more useful for roughing down than for finishing. The removal of 20 tb of cuttings per minute with a single tool is common, and that amount is often exceeded, so that a lathe soon becomes half buried in turnings unless they are carted away. The horse-power absorbed is proportionately large. Ordinary heavy lathes will take from 40 to 60 h.p. to drive them, or from four to six times more than is required by lathes of the same centres using carbon steel tools. Many remarkable records have been given of the capacities of the new steels. Not only turning and planing tools but drills and milling cutters are now regularly made of them. It is a revelation to see these drills in their rapid descent through metal. A drill of I in. in diameter will easily go through 5 in. thickness of steel in one minute. MACHINE TOOLS The machine tools employed in modern engineering factories number many hundreds of well-defined and separate types. Besides these, there are hundreds more designed for special functions, and adapted only to the work of firms who handle specialities. Most of the first named and many of the latter admit of grouping in classes. The following is a natural classification: I. Turning Lathes. — These, by common consent, stand as a class alone. The cardinal feature by which they are distin- guished is that the work being operated on rotates against a tool which is held in a rigid fixture — the rest. The axis of rotation may be horizontal or vertical. II. Reciprocating Machines. — The feature by which these are characterized is that the relative movements of tool and work take place in straight lines, to and fro. The recipro- cations may occur in horizontal or vertical planes. III. Machines which Drill and Bore Holes. — These have some features in common with the lathes, inasmuch as drilling and boring are often done in the lathes, and some facing and turning in the drilling and boring machines, but they have become highly differentiated. In the foregoing groups tools having either single or double cutting edges are used. IV. Milling Machines. — This group uses cutters having teeth arranged equidistantly round a cylindrical body, and may therefore be likened to saws of considerable thickness. The cutters rotate over or against work, between which and the cutters a relative movement of travel takes place, and they may therefore be likened to reciprocating machines, in which a revolving cutter takes the place of a single-edged one. V. Machines for Cutting the Teeth of Gear-wheels. — These comprise two sub-groups, the older type in which rotary milling cutters are used, and the later type in which reciprocating single-edged tools are employed. Sub-classes are designed for one kind of gear only, as spur-wheels, bevels, worms, racks, &c. VI. Grinding Machinery. — This is a large and constantly extending group, largely the development of recent years. Though emery grinding has been practised in crude fashion for a century, the difference in the old and the new methods lies in the embodiment of the grinding wheel in machines of high precision, and in the rivalry of the wheels of corundum, car- borundum and alundum, prepared in the electric furnace with those of emery. VII. Sawing Machines. — In modern practice these take an important part in cutting iron, steel and brass. Few shops are without them, and they are numbered by dozens in some establishments. They include circular saws for hot and cold metal, band saws and hack saws. VIII. Shearing and Punching Machines. — These occupy a border line between the cutting and non-cutting tools. Some must be classed with the first, others with the second. The detrusive action also is an important element, more especially in the punches. IX. Hammers and Presses. — Here there is a percussive action in the hammers, and a purely squeezing one in the presses. Both are made capable of exerting immense pressures, but the latter are far more powerful than the former. X. Portable Tools. — This large group can best be classified by the common feature of being readily removable for operation on large pieces of erection that cannot be taken to the regular machines. Hence they are all comparatively small and light. Broadly they include diverse tools, capable of performing nearly the whole of the operations summarized in the pre- ceding paragraphs. XI. Appliances. — There is a very large number of articles which are neither tools nor machine tools, but which are in- dispensable to the work of these; that is, they do not cut, or shape, or mould, but they hold, or grip, or control, or aid in some way or other the carrying through of the work. Thus a screw wrench, an angle plate, a wedge, a piece of packing, a bolt, are appliances. In modern practice the appliance in the form of a templet or jig is one of the principal elements in the interchangeable system. XII. Wood-working Machines. — This group does for the conversion of timber what the foregoing accomplish for metal. There is therefore much underlying similarity in many machines for wood and metal, but still greater differences, due to the conditions imposed on the one hand by the very soft, and on the other by the intensely hard, materials operated on in the two great groups. XIII. Measurement. — To the scientific engineer, equally with the astronomer, the need for accurate measurement is of paramount importance. Neither good fitting nor interchange- ability of parts is possible without a system of measurement, at once accurate and of ready and rapid application. Great advances have been made in this direction lately. I. — LATHES,1 The popular conception of a lathe, derived from the familiar machine of the wood turner, would not give a correct idea of the lathe which has been developed as the engineer's machine tool. This has become differentiated into nearly fifty well-marked.types, until in some cases even the term lathe has been dropped for more precise definitions, as vertical boring machine, automatic machine, while in others prefixes are necessary, as axle lathe, chucking lathe, cutting-off lathe, wheel lathe, and so on. With regard to size and mass the height of centres may range from 3 in. in the bench lathes to 9 or 10 ft. in gun lathes, and weights will range from say 50 Ib to 200 tons, or more in exceptional cases. While in some the mechanism is the simplest possible, in others it is so complicated that only the specialist is able to grasp its details. Early Lathes. — Space will not permit us to trace the evolution of the lathe from the ancient bow and card lathe and the pole lathe, in each of which the rotary movement was alternately for- ward, for cutting, and backward. The curious thing is that the wheel-driven lathe was a novelty so late as the lAth and isth centuries, and had not wholly displaced the ancient forms even in the West in the igth century, and the cord lathe still survives in the East. Another thing is that all the old lathes were of dead centre, instead of running mandrel type; and not until 1794 did the use of metal begin to take the place of wood in lathe construction. Henry Maudslay (1771-1831) did more than any other man to develop the engineer's self-acting lathe in regard to its essential mechanism, but it was, like its immediate successors for fifty years after, a skeleton-like, inefficient weakling by comparison with the lathes of the present time. Broad Types. — A ready appreciation of the broad differences in lathe types may be obtained by considering the differences in the great groups of work on which lathes are designed to operate. Castings and forgings that are turned in lathes vary not only in size, but also in relative dimensions. Thus a long piece of driving shafting, or a railway axle, is very differently proportioned in length and diameter from a railway wheel or a wheel tire. Further, while the shaft has to be turned only, the wheel or the tire has to be turned and bored. Here then we have the first cardinal distinction between lathes, viz. those admitting work between centres (fig. 29) and face and boring lathes. In the first the piece of work is pivoted and driven between the centres of head-stock and tail-stock or loose poppet; in the second, it is held and gripped only by the dogs or 22 TOOL [LATHES jaws of a face-plate, on the head-stock spindle, the loose poppet being omitted. These, however, are broad types only, since proportions of length to diameter differ, and with them lathe designs are modified whenever there is a sufficient amount of work of one class to justify the laying down of a special machine or machines to deal with it. Then further, we have dupli- cate designs, in which, for example, provision is made in one lathe for turning two or three long shafts simultane- ously, or for turning and boring two wheels or tires at once. Further, the position of the axis of a face lathe need not be horizontal, as is necessary when the turning of long pieces has to be done between centres. There are obvious advantages in arranging it vertically, the princi- pal being that castings and forgings can be more easily set and secured to a horizontal chuck than to one the face of which lies vertically. The chuck is also better sup- ported, and higher rates of turning are practicable. In recent years these vertical lathes or vertical turning and • boring mills (fig. 30) have been greatly increasing in num- bers; they also occur in several designs to suit either general or special duties, some of them being used for boring only, as chucking lathes. Some are of immense size, capable of boring the field magnets of electric generators 40 ft. in diameter. Standard Lathes. — But for doing what is termed the general work of the engineer's turnery, the stan- dard lathes (fig. 29) predominate, i.e. self-acting, sliding and surfacing lathes with headstock, loose poppet and slide-rest, centres, face plates and chucks, and an equip- ment by which long pieces are turned, either between centres or on the face chucks, and bored. One of the greatest objections to the employment of these standard types of lathes for indiscriminate duty is due to the limited height of the centres or axis of the head- stock, above the face of the bed. This is met generally by providing a gap or deep recess in the bed next the fast headstock, deep enough to take face work of large diameter. The device is very old and very common, but when the volume of work warrants the employment of separate lathes for face-work and for that done between centres it is better to have them. Screw-cutting.^ — A most important section of the work of the engineer's turnery is that of cutting screws (see SCREW). This has resulted in differentiation fully as great as that existing between centres and face-work. The slide-rest was designed with this object, though it is also used for plain turning. The standard " self- acting sliding, surfacing and screw-cutting lathe " is essentially the standard turning lathe, with the addi- tion of the screw-cutting mechanism. This includes a master screw — the lead or guide screw, which is gripped with a clasp nut, fastened to the travelling carriage of the slide-rest. The lead-screw is connected to the headstock spindle by change wheels, which are the variables through which the relative rates of move- ment of the spindle and the lead-screw, and therefore of the screw-cutting tool, held and traversed in the slide-rest, are effected. By this beautiful piece of mechanism a guide screw, the pitch of which is per- manent, is made to cut screw-threads of an almost infinite number of possible pitches, both in whole and fractional numbers, by virtue of rearrangements of the variables, the change wheels. The objection to this method is that the trains of change wheels have to be recalculated and rearranged as often as a screw of a different pitch has to be cut, an operation which takes some little time. To avoid this, the nest or cluster system of gears has been largely adopted, its most successful embodiment being in the Hendey- Norton lathe. Here all the change wheels are arranged in a series permanently on one shaft underneath the headstock, and any one of them is put into engagement by a sliding pinion operated by the simple movement of a lever. Thus the lead-screw is driven at different rates without removing any wheel from its spindle. This has been extensively applied to both small and large lathes. But a moment's thought will show that even this device is too cumbrous when large numbers of small screws are required. There is, for example, little in common between the screw, say of 5 or 6 ft. in length, for a massive penstock or valve, and J-in. bolts, or the small screws required in thousands for electrical fittings. Clearly while the self-acting screw-cutting lathe is the best possible machine to use for the first it is unsuitable for the last. So here at once, from the point of view of screw cutting only, an important diver- gence takes place, and one which has ultimately led to very high specialization. Small Screws. — When small screws and bolts are cut in LATHES] TOOL large quantities, the guide-screw and change wheels give place to other devices, one of which involves the use of a separate master-screw for every different pitch, the other that of encircling cutting in- struments or dies. The first are represented by the chasing lathe, the second by the screwing lathes and automatics. Though the principles of operation are thus stated in brief, the details in design are most extensive and varied. In a chasing lathe the master-screw or hob, which may be either at the rear of the headstock or in front of the slide-rest, receives a hollow clasp-nut or a half-nut, or a star-nut containing several pitches, which, partaking of the traverse movement of the screw- thread, imparts the same horizontal movement to the cutting tool. The latter is sometimes carried in a hinged holder, sometimes in a common slide-rest. The attendant throws it into engagement at the beginning of a traverse, and out when completed, and also this is an economical system, but in others not. It cannot be considered so when bolts, screws and allied forms are of small dimensions. Hollow Mandrel Lathes. — It has been the growing practice since the last decade of the igth century to produce short articles, re- quired in large quantities, from a long bar. This involves making the lathe with a hollow mandrel; that is, the mandrel of the head- stock has a hole drilled right through it, large enough to permit of the passage through it of the largest bar which the class of work requires. Thus, if the largest section of the finished pieces should require a bar of ij in. diameter, the hole in the mandrel would be made if in. Then the bar, inserted from the rear-end, is gripped by a chuck or collet at the front, the operations of turning, screwing and cutting off done, and the bar then thrust farther through to the exact length for the next set of identical operations to be FIG. 30. — Boring and Turning Mill, vertical lathe. (Webster Bennett, Ltd., Coventry.) A, Table, running with stem in vertical bearing. B, Frame of machine. C, Driving cones. D, Handle giving the choice of two rates, through concealed sliding gears, shown dotted. E, Bevel-gears driving up to pinion gearing with ring of teeth on the table. F, Saddle moved on cross-rail G. changes the hobs for threads of different sections. The screwed stays cf locomotive fire-boxes are almost invariably cut on chasing lathes of this class. In the screwing machines the thread is cut with dies, which encircle the rotating bar; or alternatively the dies rotate round a fixed pipe, and generally the angular lead or advance of the thread draws the dies' along. These dies differ in no essentials from similar tools operated by a hand lever at the bench. There are many modifications of these lathes, because the work is so highly special- ized that they are seldom used for anything except the work of cutting screws varying but little in dimensions. Such being the case they can hardly be classed as lathes, and are often termed screwing machines, because no provision exists for preliminary turning work, which is then done elsewhere, the task of turning and threading being divided between two lathes. In some cases H, Vertical slide, carrying turret J. K, Screw feeding F across. L, Splined shaft connecting to H for feeding the latter up or down. M, M, Worm-gears throwing out clutches N, N at predeter- mined points. O, Cone pulley belted up to P, for driving the feeds of saddle and down-slide. performed, and so on. This mechanism is termed a wire feed, because the first lathes which were built of this type only operated on large wires; the heavy bar lathes have been subsequently developed from it. In the more advanced types of lathes this feeding through the hollow spindle does not require the intervention of the attendant, but is performed automatically. The amount of preliminary work which has to be done upon a portion of a bar before it is ready for screwing varies. The simplest object is a stud, which is a parallel piece screwed up from each end. A bolt is a screw with a head of hexagonal, square or circular form, and the production of this involves turning the shank and shoulder and imparting convexity to the end, as well as screwing. But screw-threads have often to be cut on objects which are not primarily bolts, but which are spindles of various kinds used on mechanisms and machine tools, and in which reductions in the form TOOL [LATHES of steps have to be made, and recesses, or flanges, or other features produced. Out of the demands for this more complicated work, as well as for plain bolts and studs, has arisen the great group of turret or capstan lathes (fig. 31) and the automatics or automatic screw machines which are a high development of the turret lathes. Turret Lathes. — The turret or capstan (fig. 32) is a device for grip- ping as many separate tools as there are distinct operations to be performed on a piece of work; the number ranges from four to as many as twenty in some highly elaborated machines, but five or six is the usual number of holes. These tools are brought round FIG. 31. — Turret, Lathe. _ (Webster & Bennett, Ltd., Coventry.) A, B, C, D, E, F, H, J, K, M, Bed. Waste oil tray. Headstock. Hollow mandrel. Cones keyed to D. Split tapered close-in chuck, actuated by tube G. Toggle dogs which push G. Coned collar acting on H. Handle to slide / through sleeve on bar L. Rack slid on release of chuck, moving bearing /V lorward. 0, P, ft 5, T, V, Bearing to feed the work through mandrel (constituting the wire or bar feed). A collar is clamped on the work, and is pushed by the bearing N at each time of feeding. Cross-slide. Hand-wheel operating screw to travel 0. Turret-slide. Cross-handle moving Q to and fro. Turret or capstan. U, Sets of fast and loose pulleys, for open and crossed belts. Cone belted down to E on lathe. I FIG. 32.— Plan of Set of Turret Tools. (A. Herbert, Ltd.) A, B, C, Turret. Tool for first operation or chucking. Cutting tools for second operation, starting or point- ing. D, Box tool carrying two cutters for third operation, rough turning. E, Similar tool for fourth opera- tion, finish turning. F, Screwing tools in head for final operation of screwing. in due succession, each one doing its little share of work, until the cycle of operations required to produce the object is complete, the cycle including such operations as turning and screwing, rough- ing and finishing cuts, drilling and boring. Severance of the finished piece is generally done by a tool or tools held by a cross-slide between the headstpck and turret, so termed because its movements take place at right angles with the axis of the machine. This also often performs the duty of " forming," by which is meant the shap- ing of the exterior portion of an object of irregular outline, by a tool the edge of which is an exact counterpart of the profile required. The exterior of a cycle hub is shaped thus, as also are numerous handles and other objects involving various curves and shoulders, &c. The tool is fed perpendicularly to the axis of the rotat- ing work and completes outlines at once: if this were done in ordinary lathes much tedious manipulation of separate tools would be involved. Automatics. — But the marvel of the modern automatics (fig. 33) lies in the mechanism by which the cycle of operations is rendered absolutely independent of attendance, beyond the first adjustments and the insertion of a fresh bar as often as the previous one becomes used up. The movements of the rotating turret and of the cross- slide, and the feeding of the bar through the hollow spindle, take place within a second, at the conclusion of the operation preceding. These movements are effected by a set of mechanism independent of that by which the headstock spindle is rotated, viz. by cams or cam drums on a horizontal cam shaft, or other equivalent device, differing much in arrangement, but not principle. Move- ments are hastened or retarded, or pauses of some moments may ensue, according to the cam arrangements devised, which of course have to be varied for pieces of different proportions and dimensions. But when the machines with their tools are once set up, they will run for days or weeks, repeating precisely the same cycle of opera- tions; they are self-lubricating, and only require to be fed with fresh lengths of bar and to have their tools resharpened occasionally. Of these automatics alone there are something like a dozen distinct types, some with their turrets vertical, others horizontal. Not only so but the use of a single spindle is not always deemed suffi- ciently economical, and some of these designs now have two, three and four separate work spindles grouped in one head. LATHES] TOOL Specialized Lathes. — Outside of these main types of lathes there are a large number which do not admit of group classification. They are designed for special duties, and only a representative list can be given. Lathes for turning tapered work form a limited FIG. 33. — Automatic Lathe or Screw Machine. (A. Herbert, Ltd.) A, Main body. B, Waste oil tray. C, Headstock. D, Wire-feed tube. E, Slide for closing chuck. F, Shaft for ditto. G, Feed-slide. H, Piece of work. J, Turret wich box tools. K, Turret slide. L, Saddle for ditto, adjustable along bed. M, Screw Tor locating adjustable slide. N, Cut-off and forming cross- slide. O, 0, Back and front tool-holders on slide. P, Cam shaft. Q, Cam drum for operating chuck. R, Cam drum for operating turret. S, Cam disk for actuating cross-slide. a, a, a, Cams for actuating chuck movements through pins b, b. The cam which re- turns D is adjustable but is not in view. c, Feeding cam for turret. d,y means of cams or equivalent devices. Each type of chuck occurs in a large range of dimensions to suit lathes of all centres, besides which every lathe includes several chucks, large and small, in its equip- ment. The range of dia- meters which can be taken by any one chuck is limited, though the jaws are made with steps, in addition to the range afforded by the ope- rating screws. The " Taylor " spiral chucks (fig. 41) differ essentially from the scroll types in having the actuating threads set spirally on the sloping interior of a cone. The result is that the outward pressure of each jaw is received behind the body, because the spiral rises up at the back. In the ordinary scroll chucks the pressure is taken only at the bottom of each jaw, and the tendency to tilt and pull the teeth out of shape is very noticeable. The spiral, moreover, enables a stronger form of tooth to be used, together with a finer pitch of threads, so that the wearing area can be increased. The foregoing may be termed the standard chucks. But in addition there are large numbers for dealing with special classes of work. Brass finishers have several. Most of the hollow spindle lathes and automatics have draw-in or push-out chucks, in which the jaws are operated simultaneously by the conical bore of the encircling nose, so that their action is instantaneous and self-centring. They are either operated by hand, as in fig. 31, or automatically, as in fig. 33. There is also a large group used for drills and reamers — the drill chucks employed in lathes as well as in drilling machines. II. — RECIPROCATING MACHINE TOOLS This is the only convenient head under which to group three great classes of machine tools which possess the feature of reciprocation in common. It includes the planing, shaping and slotting machines. The feature of reciproca- tion is that the cutting tool is operative only in one direction; that is, it cuts during one stroke or movement and is idle during the return stroke. It is, therefore, in precisely the same condition as a hand tool such as a chisel, a carpenter's plane or a hand saw. We shall return again to this feature of an idle stroke and discuss the devices that exist to avoid it. Planing Machines. — In the standard planer for general shop purposes (fig. 42) the piece of work to be operated on is attached to a horizontal o table moving to and fro on a rigid bed, and passing under- neath the fixed cutting tool. The tool is gripped in a box having certain neccssary'ad- justments and movements, so that the tool can be carried or fed transversely across the work, or at right angles with the direction of its travel, to take successive cuts, and also downwards or in a vertical direction. The tool-box is carried on a cross-slide which has capacity for several feet of vertical adjustment on up- right members to suit work of varying depths. These up-(j , rights or housings are bolted to the sides of the bed, and the whole framing is so rigidly designed that no perceptible tremor or yielding takes place under the heaviest duty im- posed by the stress of cutting. liv •s 0 3 ess oj C oj Z rt-C 1) .-BC 3«>£^ aji a T ; 3*2 tj"ft3 "2 5 1 | .H 8 ill? 1 hll ? J C 4-. .0 r-=^so> U1 CO J (I _ 'i .......... J.4....4J ----- .-... ',.,,,~, . PH 0-i Cu r_/) ,2° .,. !fJJt.& 28 TOOL [RECIPROCATING MACHINES Moreover, after the required adjustments have been made and the machine started, the travel and the return of the work- table and the feeding of the tool across the surface are performed by self-acting mechanism actuated by the reciprocations of the table itself, the table being driven from the belt pulleys. To such a design there are objections, which, though their im- portance has often been exaggerated, are yet real. First, the cross- rail and housings make a rigid enclosure over the table, which sometimes prevents the admission of a piece that is too large to pass under the cross-rail or between the housings. Out of this FIG. 43. — 2O-in. Side Planing Machine. A, Bed. B, B, Feet. C, C, Work tables adjustable vertically on the faces D, D, by means of screws E, E, from handles F, F, through bevel gears. (G. Richards & Co., Ltd., Manchester.) G, Tool-box on travelling arm H, travelled by fast and loose pulleys J for cutting, and by pulleys K for quick return. L, Feed-rod with adj ustable dogs a, a, for effecting reversals through the belt forks b, b. M, Brickwork pit to receive deep objects. FIG. 44. — 8-in. Shaping Machine. A, Base. B, Work-table, having vertical movement on carriage C, which has horizontal movement along the face of A, D, Screw for effecting vertical movement, by handle E and bevel gears. F, Screw for operating longitudinal movement with feed by hand or power. G, Tool ram. H, Tool-box. a, Worm-gear for setting tool-holder at an angle. b, Crank handle spindle for operating ditto. c, Handle for actuating down feed of tool. (Cunliffe & Croom, Ltd., Manchester.) J, Driving cone pulley actuating pinion d, disk wheel e, with slotted disk, and adjustable nut moving in the slot of the crank /, which actuates the lever g, connected to the tool ram G, the motion constituting the Whitworth quick return; g is pivoted to a block which is adjustable along a slot in G, and the clamping of this block in the slot regulates the position of the ram G, to suit the position of the work on the table. k, Feed disk driven by small gears from cone pulley. j, Pawl driven from disk through levers at various rates, and con- trolling the amount of rotation of the feed screw F. K, Conical mandrel for circular shaping, driven by worm and wheel /. RECIPROCATING MACHINES] TOOL 29 objection has arisen a new design, the side planer (fig. 43), in which the tool-box is carried by an arm movable along a fixed bed or base, and overhanging the work, which is fastened to the side of the base, or on angle brackets, or in a deep pit alongside. Here the important difference is that the work is not traversed under the tool as in the ordinary planer, but the tool moves over the work. But an evil results, due to the overhang of the tool arm, which being a cantilever supported at one end only is not so rigid when cutting as the cross-rail of the ordinary machine, supported at both ends on housings. The same idea is embodied in machines built in other respects on the reciprocating table model. Sometimes one housing is omitted, and the tool arm is carried on the other, being therefore unsupported at one end. Sometimes a housing is made to be removable at pleasure, to be temporarily taken away only when a piece of work of unusual dimensions has to be fixed on the table. Another objection to the common planer is this. It seems unmechanical in this machine to reciprocate a heavy table and piece of work which often weighs several tons, and let the tool and its holder of a few hundredweights only remain stationary. The mere reversal of the table absorbs much greater horse-power there is no limitation whatever to the length of the work, since it may extend to any distance beyond the base-plate. Shaping Machines. — The shaping machine (fig. 44) does for com- paratively small pieces that which the planer does for long ones. It came later in time than the planer, being one of James Nasmyth's inventions, and beyond the fact that it has a reciprocating non- cutting return stroke it bears no resemblance to the older machine. Its design is briefly as follows: The piece of work to be shaped is attached to the top, or one of the vertical side faces, of a right- angled bracket or brackets. These are carried upon the face of a main standard and are adjustable thereon in horizontal and vertical directions. In small machines the ram or reciprocating arm (see fig. 44, G) slides in fixed guides on the top of the pillar, and the necessary side traverse is imparted to the work table B. To the top of the main standard, in one design, a carriage is fitted with hori- zontal traverse to cover the whole breadth, within the capacity of the machine, of any work to be operated on. In the largest machines two standards support a long bed, on which the carriage, with its ram, traverses past the work. These machines are frequently made double-headed, that is carriages, rams and work tables are dupli- FIG. 45. — 12-in. Stroke Slotting Machine A, Main framing. B, Driving cone. C, D, Gears driven by cones. E, Shaft of L. F, Tool ram driven from shaft E through disk G and rod H , with quick return mechanism D. J, Counter-balance lever to ram. than the actual work of cutting. Hence a strong case is often stated for the abandonment of the common practice. But, on the other hand, the centre of gravity of the moving table and work lies low down, while when the cross-rail and housings with the cut- ting tool are travelled and reversed, their centre of gravity is high, and great precautions have to be taken to ensure steadiness of movement. Several planers are made thus, but they are nearly all of extremely massive type — the pit planers. The device is seldom applied to those of small and medium dimensions. But there is a great group of planers in which the work is always fixed, the tools travelling. These are the wall planers, vertical planers or wall creepers, used chiefly by marine engine builders. They are necessary, because many of the castings and forgings are too massive to be put on the tables of the largest standard machines. They are therefore laid on the base-plate of the wall planer, and the tool-box travels up and down a tall pillar bolted to the wall or standing independently, and so makes vertical cutting strokes. In some designs horizontal strokes are provided for, or either vertical or horizontal as required. Here, as in the side planer, (Greenwood & Batley, Ltd., Leeds.) K, Flywheel. L, Driving-disk. M, N, Feed levers and shaft operated from disk, actuating linear movements of slides 0, P, and circular movement of table E, through gears R. ed motions to table. T, Countershaft. cated, and the operator can set one piece of work while the other is being shaped. In all cases the movement of the reciprocating arm, to the outer end of which the tool is attached, takes place in a direction transversely to the direction of movement of the carriage, and the tool receives no support beyond that which it receives from the arm which overhangs the work. Hence the shaper labours under the same disadvantages as the side planer — it cannot operate over a great breadth. A shaper with a 24-in. stroke is one of large capacity, 16 in. being an average limit. Although the non-cutting stroke exists, as in the planer, the objection due to the mass of a reciprocating table does not exist, so that the problem does not assume the same magnitude as in the planer. The weak point in the shaper is the overhang of the arm, which renders it liable to spring, and renders heavy cutting difficult. Recently a novel design has been introduced to avoid this, the draw-cut shaper, in which the cutting is done on the inward or return stroke, instead of on the outward one. Slotting Machines. — In the slotting machine (fig. 45) the cutting takes place vertically and there is a lost return stroke. All the TOOL [DRILLING MACHINES necessary movements save the simple reciprocating stroke are im- parted to the compound table on which the work is carried. These include two linear movements at right angles with each other and a circular motion capable of making a complete circle. Frequently a tilting adjustment is included to permit of slotting at an angle. The slotting machine has the disadvantage of an arm unsupported beyond the guides in which it moves. But the compound movements of the table permit of the production of shapes which cannot be done on planers and shapers, as circular parts and circular arcs, in com- bination with straight portions. Narrow key grooves in the bores of wheels are also readily cut, the wheels lying on the horizontal table, which would only be possible on planer and shaper by the use of awkward angle brackets, and of specially projecting tools. Quick return in planers is accomplished by having two distinct sets of gearing — a slow set for cutting and a quick train for return, each operated from the same group of driving pulleys. The return travel is thus accomplished usually three, often four, times more quickly than the forward rate; sometimes even higher rates are arranged for. In the shaper and slotter such acceleration is not practicable, a rate of two to one being about the limit, and this is obtained not by gears, but by the slotted crank, the Whitworth return, on shapers and slotters, or by elliptical toothed wheels on slotters. The small machines are generally unprovided with this acceleration. The double-cutting device seems at first sight the best solution, and it is adopted on a number of machines, though still in a great minority. The pioneer device of this kind, the rotating tool-box of Whitworth, simply turns the tool round through an angle of 180° at the termination of each stroke, the movement being self-acting. In some later designs, instead of the box being rotated to reverse the tool, two tools are used set back to back, and the one that is not cutting is relieved for the time being, that is tilted to clear the work. Neither of these tools will plane up to a shoulder as will the ordinary ones. Allied Machines. — The re- ciprocation of the tool or the work, generally the former, is adopted in several machines besides the standard types named. The plate-edge planer is used by platers and boiler makers. It is a side planer, the plates being bolted to a bed, and the tool traversing and cutting on one or both strokes. Provision is often included for planing edges at right angles. The key-seaters are a special type, designed the speed of the tools, and this controls the design of the driving and feeding mechanism. Another important difference is that between drilling or boring one or more holes simultaneously. With few exceptions the tool rotates and the work is stationary. The notable exceptions are the vertical boring lathes already mentioned. Obviously the demands made upon drilling machines are nearly as varied as those on lathes. There is little in common between the machines which are serviceable for the odd jobs done in the general shop and those which are required for the repetitive work of the shops which handle specialities. Provision often has to be made for drilling simultaneously several holes at certain centres or holes at various angles or to definite depths, while the mass of the spindles of the heavier machines renders counter-balancing essential. Bench Machines are the simplest and smallest of the group. They are operated either by hand or by power. In the power machines generally, except in the smallest, the drill is also fed downwards by power, by means of toothed gears. The upper part of the drilling ~~\ A, Base-plate. B, Pillar. C, Radial arm. D, Spindle carriage. E, Drill spindle. F, Main driving cones driving vertical shaft G through mitre-gears H. J, Spur-wheels, driving from C to vertical shaft K. L, Mitre-wheels, driving from K to horizontal shaft M, having its bearings in the radial arm. N, Nest of mitre-wheels driving the wheel spindle E from M. O, Feed-gears to drill spindle, actuated by hand- wheel P or worm-gears Q. FIG. 46.— Pillar Radial Drilling Machine, 5 ft. radius. R, R, Feed cones driving from shaft M to worm- shaft S, for self-acting feed of drill. T, Change-speed gears. U, Hand-wheel for racking carriage D along radial arm C. V, Clutch and lever for reversing direction of rotation of spindle. W, Worm-gear for turning pillar B. d, Handle for turning worm. X, Screw for adjusting the height of the radial arm. Y, Gears for actuating ditto from shaft C. i, Rod with handle for operating elevating gear. mainly to remove the work of cutting key grooves in the bores of wheels and pulleys from the slotting machine. The work is fixed on a table and the keyway cutting tool is drawn downwards through the bore, with several resulting practical advantages. Many planing machines are portable so that they may be fixed upon very massive work. Several gear-wheel cutting machines embody the reciprocating tool. III. — DRILLING AND BORING MACHINES The strict distinction between the operations of drilling and boring is that the first initiates a hole, while the second enlarges one already existing. But the terms are used with some latitude. A combined drilling and boring machine is one which has provision for both functions. But when holes are of large dimensions the drilling machine is useless because the proportions and gears are unsuitable. A 6-in. drill is unusually large, but holes are bored up to 30 ft. or more in diameter. Types of Machines. — The distinction between machines with vertical and horizontal spindles is not vital, but of convenience only. 1 he principal controlling element in design is the mass of the work, which often determines whether it or the machine shall be adjusted relatively to each other. Also the dimensions of a hole determine spindle being threaded is turned by an encircling spur-wheel, operated very slowly by a pinion and hand-wheel by the right hand of the attendant, the movement being made independent of the rotation of the spindle. A rack sleeve encircling the spindle is also common. In the power machines gears are also used, but a belt on small cone pulleys drives from the main cone shaft at variable speeds. From three to four drilling and feeding speeds are provided for by the respective cone pulleys. Work is held on or bolted to a circular table, which may have provision for vertical adjustment to suit pieces of work of different depths, and which can usually be swung aside out of the way to permit of deep pieces of work being introduced, resting on the floor or on blocking. Watt Machines. — One group of these machines resembles the bench machines in general design, but they are made to bolt to a wall instead of on a bench. Their value lies in the facilities which they afford for drilling large pieces of work lying on the floor a on block- ing, which could not go on the tables of the bench machines. Some- times a compound work-table is fastened to the floor beneath; and several machines also are ranged in line, by means of which long plates, angles, boilers or castings may be brought under the simul- taneous action of the group of machines. Another type is the radial arm machine, with or without a table beneath. In each case DRILLING MACHINES] TOOL an advantage gained is that a supporting pillar or standard is not required, its place being taken by the wall. Self-contained Pillar Machines include a large number having the above-named feature in common. In the older and less valuable types the framework is rigid, and the driving and feeding are by belt cones. But the machines being mostly of larger capacities than those just noted, back-gears similar to those of lathes are generally in- troduced. The spindles also are usually counterbalanced. The machine framing is bolted to a bed-plate. A circular work-table may or may not be included. When it is, provision is made for elevating the table by gears, and also for swinging it aside when deep work has to be put on the base-plate. Radial Arm Machines, — In these (fig. 46) the drilling mechanism is carried on a radial arm which is pivoted to the pillar with the object of moving the drill over the work, when the latter is too massive to permit of convenient adjustment under the drill. The driving takes place through shafts at right angles, from a horizontal shaft carrying the cones and back-geared to a vertical one, thence to a horizontal one along the radial arm, whence the vertical drilling makers and platers. In others the spindles are adjustable in circles of varying radii, as in those employed for drilling the bolt holes in pipe flanges. In many of these the spindles are horizontal. Some very special multiple-spindle machines have the spindles at different angles, horizontal and vertical, or at angles. Universal Machines are a particular form of the pillar type in which the spindle is horizontal, moving with its carriage on a pillar capable of traversing horizontally along a bed; the carriage has ver- tical adjustment on its pillar and so commands the whole of the face of a large piece of work bolted to a low bed-plate adjacent to the machine. The term " universal " signifies that the machine com- bines provision for drilling, boring, tapping screws and inserting screw studs, facing and in some cases milling. The power required for boring is obtained by double and treble gears. These machines are used largely in marine engine works, where very massive castings and forgings must be operated on with their faces set vertically. Boring Machines. — Many machines are classified as suitable for drilling and boring. That simply means that provision is made on FIG. 47. — Lincoln Milling Machine. A, Bed. B, B, Legs. C, Upright. D, Spindle or arbor. E, Headstock, carrying bearings for spindle D. F, Tailstock, carrying point centre for tail end of spindle. G, Hand-wheel for effecting adjustment in height of headstock, through bevel-gears H and screw ./. K, Cross-bar connecting head- and tail-stocks, and ensuring equal vertical adjustment of the spindle bearings from the screw /. spindle is driven. The latter has its bearings in a carriage which can be traversed along the arm for adjustment of radius. The spindle is counterbalanced. Hand as well as power adjustments are included. In the work-tables of radial and rigid machines there is a great diversity, so that work can be set on top, or at the sides, or at an angle, or on compound tables, so covering all the requirements of practice. Sensitive Machines have developed greatly and have superseded many of the older, slower designs. The occasion for their use lies in the drilling of small holes, ranging up to about an inch in diameter. They are belt-driven, without back-gears, and usually without bevel-gears to change the direction of motion. The feed is by lever moving a rack sleeve. A slender pillar with a foot supports the entire mechanism, and the work-table, with a range of vertical adjustment. Multiple Spindle Machines. — Many of the sensitive machines are fitted with two, three or more spindles operated in unison with a belt common to all. In other machines the multiple spindles are capable of adjustment for centres, as in the machines used by boiler (John Holroyd & Co., Ltd., Milnrow.) L, Speed cones for driving spindle, through pinion M and wheel N. 0, Frame, carrying the bearings for the cone pulley L, and pivoted to the bed at a, and to the headstock E. This device keeps the gears M and N in engagement in all variations in the height of the spindle D. P, Q, Cones for driving the table R through worm-gears S, T, and spurs U, V, to the table screw. W, Stop for automatic knock-off to feed. X, Hand-wheel for turning the same screw through worm-gears Y, Z. a drilling machine for boring holes of moderate size, say up to 8 or 10 in., by double and treble back-gears. But the real boring machine is of a different type. In the horizontal machines a splined bar actuated by suitable gears carries a boring head which holds the cutters, which head is both rotated with, and traversed or fed along the bar. The work to be bored is fixed on a table which has pro- vision for vertical adjustment to suit work of different dimensions. The boring-bar is supported at both ends. In the case of the largest work the boring-bar is preferably set with its axis vertically, and the framing of the machine is arch-like. The bar is carried in a bearing at the crown of the arch and driven and fed there by suit- able gears, while the other end of the bar rotates in the table which forms the base of the machine. Some boring machines for small engine cylinders and pump barrels have no bar proper, but a long boring spindle carrying cutters at the further end is supported along its entire length in a long stiff boss projecting from the headstock of the machine — the snout machine. The work is bolted on a carriage which slides along a bed similar to a lathe bed. Many of these machines have two bars for boring two cylinders simultaneously. TOOL [MILLING MACHINES IV. — MILLING MACHINES In milling machines rotary saw-like cutters are employed. To a certain extent these and some gear-cutting machines overlap because they have points in common. Many gear-wheel teeth are produced by rotary cutters on milling machines. In many machines designed for gear cutting only, rotary cutters alone are used. For this reason the two classes of machines are conveniently and naturally grouped together, notwithstanding that a large and increasing group of gear- cutting machines operate with reciprocating tools. The French engineer, Jacques de Vaucanson (1709-1782), is credited with having made the first milling cutter. The first very crude milling machine was made in 1818 at a gun factory in Connecti- cut. To-day the practice of milling ranks as of equal economic value with that of any other department of the machine shop, and the varieties of milling machines made are as highly differentiated as are those of any other group. An apparent incongruity which is rather striking is the relative disproportion between the mass of these machines and the small dimensions of the cutters. The failures of many of the early machines were largely due to a lack of appreciation of the intensity of the stresses involved in milling. A single-edged cutting tool has generally a very narrow edge in operation. Milling cutters are as a rule very wide by comparison, and several teeth in deep cuts are often in simultaneous operation. The result is that the machine spindle and the arbor or tool mandrel are subjected to severe stress, the cutter tends to spring away from the surface being cut, and if the framings are of light proportions they vibrate, and in- accuracy and chatter result. Even with the very stiff machines now made it is not possible to produce such accurate results on wide sur- faces as with the planer using a narrow-edged tool. Because of this great resistance and stress, cutters of over about an inch in width are always made with the teeth arranged spirally, and wide cutters which are intended for roughing down to compete with the planer always have either inserted cutters or staggered teeth. Hence the rotary cutter type of machine has not been able to displace the planing machine in wide work when great accuracy is essential. Its place lies in other spheres, in some of which its position is unassailable. Nearly all pieces of small and medium dimensions are machined as well by milling as by single-edged tools. All pieces which have more than one face to be operated on are done better in the milling machine than elsewhere. All pieces which have profiled outlines involving combinations of curves and plane faces can generally only be pro- duced economically by milling. Nearly all work that involves equal divisions, or pitchings, as in the manufacture of the cutters themselves, or spiral cutting, or the teeth of gear-wheels when pro- duced by rotary cutters, must be done in milling machines. Beyond these a large quantity of work lies on the border-line, where the choice between milling and planing, shaping, slotting, &c., is a matter for individual judgment and experience. It is a matter for some sur- prise that round the little milling cutter so many designs of machines have been built, varying from each other in the position of the tool spindles, in their number, and in the means adopted for actuating them and the tables which carry the work. A very early type of milling machine, which remains extremely popular, was the Lincoln. It was designed, as were all the early machines, for the small arms factories in the United States. The necessity for all the similar parts of pistols and rifles being inter- changeable, has had the paramount influence in the development of the milling machine. In the Lincoln machine as now made (fig. 47) the work is attached to a table, or to a vice on the table, which has horizontal and cross traverse movements on a bed, but no capacity for vertical adjustment. The cutter is held and rotated on an arbor driven from a headstock pulley, and supported on a tail- stock centre at the other end, with capacity for a good range of ver- tical adjustment. This is necessary both to admit pieces of work of different depths or thicknesses between the table and the cutter, and to regulate the depth of cutting (vertical feed). Around this general design numerous machines small and large, with many variations in detail, are built. But the essential feature is the ver- tical movement of the spindle and cutter, the support of the arbor (cutter spindle) at both ends, and the rigidity afforded by the bed which supports head- and tail-stock and table. The pillar and knee machines form another group which divides favour about equally with the Lincoln, the design being nearly of an opposite character. The vertical movements for setting and feed are imparted to the work, which in this case is carried on a bracket or knee that slides on the face of the pillar which supports the headstock. Travelling and transverse movements are imparted to the table slides. The cutter arbor may or may not be supported away from the headstock by an arched overhanging arm. None of these machines is of large dimensions. They are made in two leading designs — the plain and the universal. The first embodies rectangular relations only, the second is a marvellous instrument both in its range of movements and fine degree of precision. The first machine of this kind was exhibited at Paris in 1867. The design permits the cutting of spiral grooves, the angle of which is embodied in the adjustment of a swivelling table and of a headstock thereon (universal or spiral head). The latter embodies change-gears like a screw-cutting lathe and worm-gear for turning the head, in com- bination with an index or dividing plate having several circles of holes, which by the insertion of an index peg permit of the work spindle being locked during a cut. The combinations possible with the division plate and worm-gear number hundreds. The head also has angular adjustments in the vertical direction, so that tapered work can be done as well as parallel. The result is that there is nothing in the range of spiral or parallel milling, or tapered work or spur or bevel-gear cutting, or cutter making, that cannot be done on this type of machine, and the_ accuracy of the results of equal divisions of pitch and angle of spiral do not depend on the human element, but are embodied in the mechanism. FIG. 48. — Vertical Spindle Milling Machine. (James Archdale & Co., Ltd.) A, Main framing. B, Knee. C, Spindle, having its vertical position capable of adjustment by the sliding of D on A. E, Driving cone, belt driving over guide pulleys F to spindle pulley G. H, Enclosed gears for driving spindle by back gear. J, Hand-wheel for adjusting spindle vertically. K, K, Pulleys over which spindle is counterbalanced. L, Feed pulley, driven from counter shaft. M, Vertical feed shaft, driven from L through mitre-gears. N, Change gear box. O, Horizontal feed shaft, operating longitudinal and transverse feed of table through spiral and spur-gears. P, P, Handles for operating changes in feed speeds, nine in number. Q, Handle for reversing direction of motion of table R. S, Hand-wheel for longitudinal movement of table. T, Hand-wheel for effecting cross adjustments. V, Spiral gears indicated for effecting self-acting rotation of circular table W. X, Hand-wheel for rotation of table. Y, Hand-wheel for vertical movements of knee B on screw Z. Machines with vertical spindles (fig. 48) form another great group, the general construction of which resembles that either of the com- mon drilling machine or of the slotting machine. In many cases the horizontal position is preferable for tooling, in others the vertical, but often the matter is indifferent. For general purposes, the heavier class of work excepted, the vertical is more convenient. But apart from the fitting of a special brace to the lower end of the spindle which carries the cutter, the spindle is unsupported there and is thus liable to spring. But a brace can only be used with a milling cutter that operates by its edges, while one advantage of the vertical spindle machine is that it permits of the use of end or face cutters. One of the greatest advantages incidental to the vertical position of the spindle is that it permits of profile milling being done. One of the most tedious operations in the machine shop is the production of outlines which are not those of the regular geometric figures, as rectangles and circles, or combinations of the same. There is GEAR-CUTTING MACHINES] TOOL 33 only one way in which irregular forms can be produced cheaply and interchangeably, and that is by controlling the movements of the tool with an object of similar shape termed a "form" or " former," as in the well-known copying lathes, in the cam grinding machine, and in the forming adjuncts fitted to vertical spindle milling machines, so converting those into profiling machines. The prin- ciple and its application are alike simple. An object (the form) is made in hardened steel, having the same outlines as the object to be milled, and the slide which carries the cutter spindle has a hardened former pin or roller, which is pulled hard against the edges of the form by a suspended weight, so causing the tool to move and cut in the same path and in the same plane around the edges of the work. Here the milling machine holds a paramount place. No matter how many curves and straight portions may be combined in a piece, the machine reproduces them all faultlessly, and a hundred or a thousand others all precisely alike without any tentative corrections. Piano-millers, also termed slabbing machines, form a group that grows in value and in mass and capacity. They are a comparatively late development, becoming the chief rivals to the planing machines, for all the early milling was of a very light character. In general outlines the piano-millers closely resemble the planing machines, having bed, table, housings and cross-rail. The latter in the piano- miller carries the bearings for the cutter spindle or spindles under which the work travels and reciprocates. These spindles are ver- tical, but in some machines horizontal ones are fitted also, as in planers, so that three faces at right or other angles can be operated on simultaneously. The slabbing operations of the piano-millers do not indicate the full or even the principal utilities of these machines. To understand these it must be remembered that the cross-sections of very many parts which have to be tooled do not lie in single planes merely, but in combinations of plane surfaces, horizontal, vertical or angular. In working these on the planing machine separate settings of tools are required, and often successive settings. But milling cutters are built up in " gangs " to deal with such cases, and in this way the entire width of profile is milled at once. Horizontal faces, and vertical and angular edges and grooves, are tooled simul- taneously, with much economy in time, and the cutter profile will be accurately reproduced on numbers of separate pieces. Allied to the piano-millers are the rotary planers. They derive their name from the design of the cutters. An iron disk is pierced with holes for the insertion of a large number of separate cutters, which by the rotation of the disk produce plane surfaces. These are milling cutters, though the tools are single-edged ones, hence termed " inserted tooth mills." These are used on other machines besides the rotary planers, but the latter are massive machines built on the planer model, with but one housing or upright to carry the carriage of the cutter spindle. These machines, varied considerably in design, do good service on a class of work in which a very high degree of accuracy is not essential, as column flanges, ends of girders, feet of castings, and such like. V. — GEAR-CUTTING MACHINES The practice of cutting the teeth of gear-wheels has grown but slowly. In the gears used by engineers, those of large dimensions are numerous, and the cost of cutting these is often prohibitive, though it is unnecessary in numbers of mechanisms for which cast wheels are as suitable as the more accurately cut ones. The smallest gears for machines of precision have long been produced by cutting, but of late years the practice has been extending to include those of medium and large dimensions, a movement which has been largely favoured by the growth of electric driving, the high speeds of which make great demands on reduction and trans- mission gears. Several new types of gear-cutting machines have been designed, and specialization is still growing, until the older machines, which would, after a fashion, cut all forms of gears, are being ousted from modern establishments. The teeth of gear-wheels are produced either by rotary milling cutters or by single-edged tools (fig. 49). The advantage of the first is that the cutter used has the same sectional form as the inter- tooth space, so that the act of tooth cutting imparts the shapes without assistance from external mechanism. But this holds good only in regard to spur-wheel teeth, that is, those in which the teeth lie parallel with the axis of the wheel. The teeth of bevel-wheels, though often produced by rotary cutters, can never be formed absolutely correctly, simply because a cutter of unalterable section is employed to form the shapes which are constantly changing in dimensions along the length of the teeth (the bevel-wheel being a frustum of a cone). Hence, though fair working teeth are ob- tained in this way, they result from the practice of varying the relative angles of the cutters and wheel and removing the material in several successive operations or traverses, often followed by a little correction with the file. Although this practice is still commonly followed in bevel-wheels of small dimensions, and was at one time the only method available, the practice has been changing in favour of shaping the teeth by a process of planing with a single-edged reciprocating tool. As, however, such a tool embodies no formative section as do the milling cutters, either it or the wheel blank, or both, have to be coerced and controlled by mechanism outside the tool itself. Around this method a number of very ingenious xxvn. 2 machines have been designed, which may be broadly classed under two great groups — the form and the generating types. In the form machines a pattern tooth or form-tooth is prepared in hardened steel, usually three times as large as the actual teeth to be cut, and the movement of the mechanism which carries the wheel blank is coerced by this form, so that the tool, reciprocated by its bar, produces the same shape on the reduced dimensions of the wheel teeth. The generating machines use no pattern tooth, but the principles of the tooth formation are embodied in the mechan- ism itself. These are very interesting designs, because they not only shape the teeth without a pattern tooth, but their movements are automatically controlled. A large number of these have been brought out in recent years, their growth being due to the demand for accurate gears for motor cars, for electric driving, and for general high-class engineers' work. These are so specialized that they can only cut the one class of gear for which they are designed — the bevel-wheels, and these in only a moderate range of dimensions on a single machine of a given size. The principal bevel-gear cutting machines using forms or formers, are the Greenwood & Batley, Le Progrfes Industriel, the Bouhey (cuts helical teeth), the Oerlikon, which includes two types, the single and double cutting tools, the Gleason and the Rice. Generating machines include the Bilgram (the oldest), the Robey-Smith, the Monneret, the Warren, the Beale and the Dubosc. FIG. 49. — Gear Cutting. A, Rotary milling cutter pro- D, Action of " Fellows " cutter, ducing tooth space. planing teeth. B, Planer tool operating on tooth E, Shape of " Fellows " cutter. flank. F, Hobbing cutter. C, Planer form-tool finishing G, Tapered hob beginning worm- tooth space. wheel. H, Ditto finishing. As the difficulties of cutting bevel-wheels with rotary cutters, consequent on change of section of the teeth, dp not occur in spur- gears, there are no examples of form machines for spur-wheel cutting, and only one generating planing type of machine, the Fellows, which produces involute teeth by a hardened steel-cutting pinion, which shapes wheels having any number of teeth of the same pitch, the cutter and blank being partly rotated between each cut as they roll when in engagement. The worm-gears appropriate a different group of machines, the demands on which have become more exacting since the growth of electric driving has brought these gears into a position of greater importance than they ever occupied before. With this growth the demand for nothing less than perfect gears has developed. A perfect gear is one in which the teeth of the worm-wheel are envelopes of the worm or screw, and this form can only be produced in practice in one way — by using a cutter that is practically a serrated worm (a hob), which cuts its way into the wheel just as an actual worm might be supposed to mould the teeth of a wheel made of a plastic substance. To accomplish this the relative move- ments of the hob and the wheel blank are arranged to be precisely those of the working worm and wheel. Very few such machines are made. A practical compromise is effected by causing the hob 34 TOOL [GRINDING MACHINES both to drive and cut the blank in an ordinary machine. When worms are not produced by these methods the envelope cannot be obtained, but each tooth space is cut by an involute milling cutter set at the angle of thread in a universal machine, or else in one of the general gear-cutting machines used for spur, bevel and worm gears, and only capable of yielding really accurate results in the case of spur-wheels. The previous remarks relate only to the sectional forms of the teeth. But their pitch or distance from centre to centre requires dividing mechanism. This includes a main dividing or worm- wheel, a worm in conjunction with change gears, and a division plate for setting and locking the mechanism. The plate may have four divisions only to receive the locking lever or it may be drilled with a large number of holes in circles for an index peg. The first is adopted in the regular gear-cutters, the second on the universal milling machines which are used also for gear-cutting. In the largest number of machines this pitching has to be done by an attendant as often as one tooth is completed. But in a good number of recent machines the pitching is effected by the move- ments of the machine itself witnout human intervention. With spur-wheels the cutting proceeds until the wheel is complete, when the machine is often made to ring a bell to call attention to the fact. But in bevel-wheels only one side of the teeth all the way round can be done; the attendant must then effect the necessary settings for the other side, after which the pitchings are automatic. As a general rule only one tooth is being operated on at one time. But economy is studied in spur-gears by setting several similar wheels in line on a mandrel and cutting through a single tooth of the series at one traverse of the tool. In toothed racks the same device is adopted. Again, there are cases in which cutters are made to operate simultaneously on two, three or more adjacent teeth. Recently a generating machine of novel design has been manu- factured, the spur-wheel hobbing machine. In appearance the hob resembles that employed for cutting worm-gears, but it also generates the teeth of spur and spiral gears. The hob is a worm cut to form teeth, backed off and hardened. The section of the worm thread is that of a rack. Though it will cut worm-wheels, spiral-wheels or spur-wheels equally correctly, the method of pre- sentation varies. When cutting worm-wheels it is fed inwards per- pendicularly to the blank; when cutting spirals it is set at a suitable angle and fed across the face of the blank. The angle of the worm thread in the hob being about 2j°, it has to be set by that amount out of parallel with the plane of the gear to be cut. It is then fed down the face of the wheel blank, which is rotated so as to syn- chronize with the rotation of the worm. This is effected through change gears, which are altered for wheels having different numbers of teeth. The advantage is that of the hob over single cutters; one hob serves for all wheels of the same pitch, and each wheel is cut absolutely correct. While using a set of single cutters many wheels must have their teeth only approximately correct. VI. — GRINDING MACHINES The practice of finishing metallic surfaces by grinding, though very old, is nevertheless with regard to its rivalry with the work of the ordinary machine tools a development of the last part of the I9th century. From being a non-precision method, grinding has become the most perfect device for producing accurate results measured precisely within thousandths of an inch, ft would be rather difficult to mention any class of machine-shop work which is not now done by the grinding wheel. The most recent develop- ments are grinding out engine cylinders and grinding the lips of twist drills by automatic movements, the drills rotating constantly. There are five very broad divisions under which grinding machines may be classified, but the individual, well-defined groups or types might number a hundred. The main divisions are: (l) Machines for dealing with plane surfaces; (2) machines for plain cylindrical work, external and internal; (3) the universals, which embody movements rendering them capable of angular setting; (4) the tool grinders: and (5) the specialized machines. Most of these might be again classed under two heads, the non-precision and the precision types. The difference between these two classes is that the first does not embody provision for measuring the amount of material removed, while the second does. This distinction is a most important one. The underlying resemblances and the differences in the main designs of the groups of machines just now noted will be better understood if the essential conditions of grinding as a correc- tive process are grasped. The cardinal point is that accurate results are produced by wheels that are themselves being abraded constantly. That is not the case in steel cutting tools, or at least in but an infinitesimal degree. A steel tool will retain its edge for several hours (often for days) without the need for regrinding, Dut the particles of abrasive in an emery or other grinding wheel are being incessantly torn out and removed. A wheel in traversing along a shaft say of 3 ft. in length is smaller in diameter at the terrrujnation than at the beginning of the traverse, and therefore the shaft must be theoretically larger at one end than the other. Shafts, nevertheless, are ground parallel. The explanation is, and it lies at the basis of emery grinding, that the feed or amount removed at a single traverse is extremely minute, say a thousandth or half a thousandth of an inch. The minuteness of the feed receives compensation in the repetition and rapidity of the traverse. The wear of the wheel is reduced to a minimum and true work is produced. From this fact of the wear of grinding wheels two important results follow. One is that a traverse or lateral movement must always take place between the wheel and the piece of work being ground. This is necessary in order to prevent a mutual grooving action between the wheel and work. The other is that it is essential to provide a large range in quality of wheels, graded according to coarseness and fineness, of hardness and softness of emery to suit all the different metals and alloys. Actually about sixty grades are manufactured, but about a dozen will generally cover average shop practice. With such a choice of wheels the softest brass as well as the hardest tempered steel or case-hardened glass-like surfaces that could not possibly be cut in lathe or planer, can be ground with extreme accuracy. FIG. 50. — Universal Grinding Machine, 7 in. centres; 3 ft. 6 in. between centres. (H. W. Ward & Co., Ltd., Birmingham.) Base or body, with waste water tray round top edge, and interior fitted as cup- boards, with shelves and doors. B, Sliding table. C, Swivej table. D, Grinding wheel. E, Wheel guard. F, Wheel headstock swivelling in a horizontal plane, and having the base graduated into degrees for angular setting. G, Slide carrying headstock. H, Hand-wheel for traversing table. /, Headstock for carrying and driving work, used for chuck work or dead centre work ; the base is graduated into degrees. a, Dogs, which regulate auto- matic reversals. An internal grinding fixture, not shown, is fitted to wheel head. L, Countershaft pulley driving to wheel pulley. M, Pulley driving to cones. N, Pulley driving to work head- stock pulley. O, Belt from line shaft. P, Water pipe from pump. Q, Water guards above table. Plane surfacing machines in many cases resemble in general outlines the well-known planing machine and the vertical boring mill. The wheels traverse across the work, and they are fed vertically to precise fractional dimensions. They fill a large place in finishing plane surfaces, broad and narrow alike, and have be- come rivals to the planing and milling machines doing a similar class of work. For hardened surfaces they have no rival. Cylindrical grinders include many subdivisions to embrace external and internal surfaces, either parallel or tapered, small or GRINDING MACHINES] TOOL 35 large. In their highest development they fulfil what are termed " universal " functions (fig. 50), that is, they are capable of grinding both external and internal cylinders, plane faces, tapers, both of low and high angle, and the teeth of various kinds of tools and cutters. These machines occur in two broad types. In one the axis of the revolving wheel is traversed past- the work, which revolves but is not traversed. In the other the reverse occurs, the work traversing and the axis of the wheel with its bearings remaining stationary. Equally satisfactory results are obtained by each. In all external cylindrical grinding, when the work can be rotated, the piece being ground rotates in an opposite direction to the rotation of the wheel (fig. 51, A). In all small pieces ground internally the same procedure is adopted (fig. 51, B). Incidentally, FIG. 51. A, External cylindrical grinding. B, Internal ditto. C, External grinding when the work is fixed. D, Internal ditto. mention should be made of the fineness of the fitting required and attained in the construction of the spindles which carry the wheels for internal grinding. The perfection of fitting and of the means of adjustment for eliminating the effects of wear in the ordinary spindles for external and internal grinding is remarkable. The spindles for internal work have to revolve at rates ranging from about 6000 to 30,000 times ,in a minute, yet run so truly that the holes ground do not depart from accuracy by more than say 5^3 to rsJnnr of an inch. Yet so long as the work can be revolved no special complication of mechanism is required to ensure good results. The revolution of the wheel and the work is mutually helpful. The real difficulties arise when the work, on account of its mass or awk- wardness of shape, cannot be revolved. The principle embodied in machines designed to deal satisfactorily with such cases, though much diversified in detail, is the application of the planet device to the grinding wheels. That is, the wheel spindle rotating at a high speed, 6000 or 7000 revolutions per minute, is simultaneously carried round in a circular path, so that its axis makes about 25 or 30 revolutions per minute (fig. 51, C and D). The diameter of the path is capable of adjustment with minute precision within wide limits to suit bores of different diameters. The periphery of the grinding wheel which lies farthest from its axis of revolution sweeps round in a path -the diameter of which equals that of the bore to be ground. These machines are now used largely for grinding out the cylinders of gas and petrol engines, valve seatings, the bushed holes of coupling rods, and similar classes of work. Many of them have their spindles set horizontally, others vertically. Allied to these are a relatively small but important group of machines used for grinding the slot links of the slide-valve gear of locomotive and other engines. The slot is mounted on a pivoted bar adjusted to the same radius as the slot to be ground, and the slot is moved relatively to the wheel, so producing the required curves. In another direction much development has taken place jn the practice of grinding. The increasing use of the milling cutter has FIG. 52. A, Grinding front edges of milling cutter. B, Grinding side edges of milling cutter; a, a, Tooth rests. C, Grinding face of formed mill. been the occasion for the growth and high specialization of the cutter grinding machines. It is essential to the efficiency of such cutters that regrinding shall be done without drawing the temper, and this can only be effected by the use of an abrasive. In the early days of their use the temper had to be drawn to permit of filing and rehardening effected with its inevitable distortion. Cutter grinding machines must possess universality of movements to deal with the numerous shapes in which milling cutters are made; hence they often resemble in general outlines the universal grinding machines. But as a rule they are built on lighter models, and with a smaller range of movements, because the dimensions of cutters are generally much smaller than those of the ordinary run of engineers' work which has to be ground. Frequently a single pillar or standard suffices to carry the mechanism. In an ordinary universal tool grinder all the teeth of any form of cutter can be ground pre^sely alike (fig. 52) excepting those having irregular profiled outlines, for which a special machine, or an extra attachment to an ordinary machine, is necessary. But little of this is done, because in such cases, and in many others, the faces of the teeth are ground instead of the edge. This idea, due to the firm of Brown & Sharpe, may seem a trifle, but nevertheless to it the credit is largely due for the economies of cutter grinding. The principle is that in the " formed cutter," as it is termed, the profiles of the teeth are not struck from the axis of revolution, but from another centre (fig. 20) ; grinding the tooth faces, therefore, has no effect on the shapes of the profiles, but only lessens the tooth thicknesses. Designed originally for the cutters for the teeth of gear-wheels, it has long been applied to profiles which involve combinations of curves. The pitching of the teeth is effected by a strip of metal, or tooth rest a (fig. 52), on which each successive tooth rests and is coerced during the grinding. If teeth are of special form the traverse movement of a spiral tooth along the rest ensures the required movement. Besides the cutter grinders used for milling cutters, reamers and screwing taps, there are two other groups of tool grinders, one for twist drills o^Jry and the other for the single-edged tools used in lathe, planer, shaper and other machines. Both these in their best forms are of recent development. The machines used for grinding twist drills embody numerous designs. Hand grinding is practically abandoned, the reason being that a very minute departure from symmetry on the two cutting lips of the drill results inevitably in the production of inaccurate holes. It is essential that the two lips be alike in regard to length, angle and clearance, and these are embodied in the mechanism of the grinding machines. But formerly in all these the drill holder had to be moved by hand around its pivot, and one lip ground at a time There are now some very beautiful machines of German manufacture in which the necessary movements are all automatic, derived from the continuous rotation of a belt pulley. The drill rotates constantly, and small amounts are ground off each lip in turn until the grinding is finished. The other group for grinding single-edged tools is a very small one. The correct angles for grinding are embodied in the setting of the machine, with the great advantage that any number of similar tools can be ground all alike without skilled attendance. Lying outside these broad types of machines there is a large and growing number designed for special service. The knife-grinding group for sharpening the planer knives used in wood-working machinery is a large one. Another is that for gulleting or deepening the teeth of circular saws as they wear. Another is designed for grinding the cups and cones for the ball races of cycle wheels, and another for grinding the hardened steel balls employed in ball bearings. B C D £ FIG. 53. — Typical Grinding Wheels. A , Common disk held on spindle with washers and nuts. B, Thin disk. C, Flanged disk for grinding to shoulders. D, Bevelled disk for cutter grinding. E, F, Cupped and dished wheels for cutter grinding. G, Cup wheel for grinding on face o; diameter remains constant. Emery grinding is dependent for much of its success on a plentiful supply of water. Dry grinding, which was the original practice, is hardly employed now. The early difficulties of wet grinding were due to the want of a cementing material which would not soften under the action of water. Now wheels will run constantly without damage by water, and they are so porous that water will filter through them. Improvements in the manufacture of wheels, and the increased use of water, have concurred to render possible heavier and more rapid grinding without risk of distortion due to heating effects. In the best modern machines the provisions for water supply are a study in themselves, including a centrifugal pump, a tank, jointed piping, spraying tube, guards to protect the bearings and slides from damage, and trays to receive the waste water and conduct it back to the tank. There are two points of view from which the modern practice of grinding is now regarded — one as a corrective, the other as a TOOL [SAWING MACHINES formative process. The first is the older and is still by far the most important. The second is a later ideal towards which design and practice have been extending. As yet grinding cannot compete with the work of the single-edged tools and milling cut- ters when large quantities of material have to be removed. Just as some leading firms have been designing stiffer machines having fuller lubri- cation with a view to increase the duty of grinding wheels, the advent of the high-speed steels has given a new lease of life to the single-edged cutting tools. The rivalry now lies not with the tools of carbon temper steel, but with high- speed varieties. But as a corrective process grinding never occupied so im- portant a position as it does to-day, and its utility continues to extend. The commoner forms in which grind- ing wheels are made are shown in fig. 53. These are varied largely in dimensions, from tiny cylindrical rollers a fraction of an inch in diameter for hole grind- ing, to big wheels of 3 ft. or more in diameter. Safety mountings, two examples of which are shown in fig. 54, embody means of retaining the broken pieces of a wheel in case it bursts. Sand-blast. — The well-known erosive action of sand when driven against rocks and stones by the wind is utilized FlG 54 — Safety Devices industrially in the sand-blastapparatus, A, Grinding wheel, with the invention of B. C. Tilghman. The coned washer to retain sand. ls propelled by a current of steam broken pieces in case or *"' .an,9 bem8 delivered through a of fracture nozzle is directed against the surface of B, Cup wheel with encircling the ^ork' cutting it away by the action ring, moved backwards of .,tPe enormous number of grains as the wheel face wears. strlklng the face, each removing a very minute quantity of material. The action is very gentle, and may be modified by varying the class of sand and its velocity. Other materials, such as emery, chilled iron globules, &c., are employed for certain classes of work. _In some instances the powder is used dry, in others it is mixed with water, being then in the condition of fluid mud. The plant includes an air-compressing engine, an B air reservoir and the blast nozzle through which the air passes and propels the sand in the form of a jet. The pressures range from 8 Ib up to about 60 tb per sq. in., depending on the class of work which is done. The peculiar advantage of the sandblast lies in its adaptability to the working of irregular surfaces, which could not be touched by any other class of grinding. The blast penetrates hollows and recesses, and acts over an entire surface. There are many classes of operation done with the sand-blast, including cleaning, frosting, ornamentation, engraving and sharpening. In engineers' works a large amount of cleaning is effected upon castings, forgings, sheets and other products, either preparatory to machining or to painting, enamelling, tinning, galvanizing or plating. Cycle frames are cleaned with the sand-blast after brazing. The teeth of files are sharpened by directing a stream of sand and water against their backs, with the result that the burr thrown up by the chisel when cutting is obliterated, and a strong form of tooth is produced. Worn files may also be sharpened up to equal new ones by sand-blasting them. Frosting glass is another useful application of the sand-blast, and by attaching suitable patterns or designs to the surface the sand may be caused to work ornamental figurings. It is a peculiar circum- stance that the sand has little effect upon soft and yielding substances in comparison with the abrasion it produces on hard surfaces, so that the pattern will remain undamaged, while the glass or other object beneath is frosted where the sand reaches it, through the openings. Not only can designs be worked on glass, or cut in stone, but perforations may be made in glass, &c., by the continued action of the sand, without any risk of fracture occurring. Much sand- blasting is performed inside closed chambers, having panes through which the workman watches the progress of the operation. But when the blast must be used in the open, protection is necessary and is afforded to the operator by a special helmet, which keeps out the flying dust and gives a supply of pure air through a tube in a similar fashion to the diver's helmet. VII. — SAWING MACHINES Metal-sawing machines are employed extensively in engineering works for cutting off bars, shafts, rails, girders and risers on steel castings, and for getting out curved pieces which would be difficult and expensive to slot. There are three classes of these saws, circular, band and reciprocating. The first named are used for straight- forward work, operating at right or other angles, the second for straight cuts and also for curves which can- not be treated with circular saws, and the third for small pieces. The circular sawsem- body a stiff spindle, carrying the saw disk and driven by gearing. This spindle may be mounted in a sliding bearing to carry it past the work held on a fixed table, or the spindle may be sta- tionary and the work be moved along past the saw. The method of feeding should be sensitive, so that it will " give " and prevent damage A, Saw blade. B, Spindle. C, Sliding spindle carriage. D, Driving pulleys. £, First pinion, connecting through train of gears to wheel F, driving splined shaft G. H, Wheel driven from sliding pinion on G. J, Bevel-gears, communicating the motion to spindle B. K, Screw for feeding carriage C along. P, FIG. 55. — Cold-sawing Machine. (Isaac Hill & Son, Derby.) L, Three-step cone on shaft G, belted to M , connected by bevel-gears N and worm-gear O, to the screw K. Clutch for throwing in O to drive K. Gears connecting shaft of L direct to K, also through clutch P. R, Handle for operating clutch P, which thus gives slow feed when clutch is in mesh with O, and quick return when engaging with P. S, Tappet rod, having dogs struck by carriage to stop feeding. T , Work-table, with clamp to hold objects. U, H-Girder being sawn off. SHEARING MACHINES] TOOL 37 to the teeth, should undue stress come upon the saw. This is usually effected by the use of weights or springs, which allow a certain free- dom or latitude to the driving gears. The work is held by screw clamps, V-blocks being required in the case of circular objects. A number of pieces, such as shafts, rails or girders, can be fastened down close together in a pile and cut through in one operation. There is a very useful class of circular saw, the flush-side (fig. 55), ti:at is valuable for cutting close up to a surface. The disk is bolted to a flange on the end of the spindle with countersunk bolts, so that the face is quite flat. Another class of saw used for dealing with girders and bars is carried in bearings upon a pivoted arm, which is pulled downwards by a weight to give the feed. The work is bolted to a table below the saw. Ample lubrication, by oil or soapy water, is essential in cutting wrought iron and steel; it is pumped on the blade, keeping it cool and washing away the cuttings. Band-saw machines resemble in outline the familiar types employed for sawing wood, but they are necessarily stronger and stiffer, and the saws run at a much lower speed. The tables, moreover, differ in possessing compound slides for moving the work and in the provi- sion of a series of slots on the top table, whereby the object to be sawn is secured with bolts and clamps. The tables are moved automatic- ally or by hand. The rate of cutting must be varied according to the thickness of metal. Lubrication is effected by running the lower saw pulley in a bath of oil or soapy water, which is carried up, so keeping the blade cool and " easing " the cut. The reciprocating class of saw has until recently been confined to small types for workshop use, termed hack saws, which have a small blade ranging from 12 to 18 in. long. This is strained between a couple of bearings in a frame which is reciprocated above the work clamped in a vice. An arrangement of weights feeds the saw downwards. The larger hack saws cut off bars and girders up to 12 in. across, and in some there is a provision introduced for giving intermittent rotation to the bar, thus presenting fresh faces to the saw. The hack saw is of great utility for comparatively light work, and, as the smallest blades are cheap enough to be thrown away when worn out, there is no trouble and expense connected with their sharpening, as in the circular and band saws. An adaptation of the reciprocating saw is that of the jig type, which has a small blade set vertically and passing up through a table on which the work is laid. It is handy for cutting out dies and various curved outlines, in the same manner that fret-sawing in wood is done. VIII. — SHEARING AND PUNCHING MACHINES These have much in common as regards their mode of operation. They are actuated either by belt and spur gearing, by steam-engine, by electric motor, or hydraulically. The first named is only suitable where arrangements can be made for driving from a line shaft. In view of the great convenience of the other methods of driving, they are coming into greater use, especially for ship-yards and other works where shafting is undesirable or inconvenient. For boiler makers' and platers' use the function of punching, and shearing are usually combined in one machine, the rams being placed at opposite ends and actuated from the same source of power. The last shaft in the train of gearing is set to bring its ends within the boxes containing the rams, and eccentrics on the shaft are moved within die blocks fitted to the rams, so that as the shaft revolves it causes the rams to move up and down and operate the shear blade and P, FlG. 56. — Hydraulic Punching and Shearing Machine. (Musgrave Brothers, Leeds.) A, Frame. E, Punch. /, K, Main and return rams for B Shear blades, set angularly. F & G, Main and return rams ditto. C, Ram for operating blade. for punch. L, M, N, Attendant's control- D, Small ram for returning ditto. H, Angle shear. ling handles. FIG. 57. — Steam Hammer, small Overhanging Type. (B. & S. Massey, Manchester). A, Standard. B, Base-plate. C, Anvil block (independent of standards). D, Tup or hammer head. E, Pallets, or forging blocks, attached to anvil and tup. Steam cylinder. Piston, solid with piston rod H. Piston valve, regulating period of admission of steam, operated by hand by lever K or lever N. Stop or throttle valve for controlling admission of steam to valve chest, operated by hand lever M. Lever in contact with roller on tup D, which moves the valve J automatically as the tup rises and falls. Lever for pre-ad justing the range of movement of N and J, according to its setting in the notches of the quadrant from a to b. Steam supply pipe from boiler. Q, Exhaust steam pipe. the punch attached to the bottom end. Another class of machines is worked by means of massive levers, pivoted in the framing, and actuated by cams on the driving shaft which cause the levers to rock and move the punches or shears up and down by the opposite ends. The punch slides are constructed to " dwell " for a short period at the top of the stroke at each revolution, thus giving the attendant time to place and ad- just the plate accurately beneath the punch. The same effect is obtained in the eccentric types of machines mentioned above, by a disengaging motion .which is thrown in by touching a lever, thus stopping the punch until the operator is ready for its descent. The more complete machines have an angle shear situated centrally, with V-blades for severing angle iron. The largest forms of shears, for massive plates, usually have the blade recipro- cated by crank or eccentrics on the driving shaft, coupled by connecting- rods to the slide. Hydraulic punching and shearing machines are used largely on account of their convenience, since they dis- pense with all belts, engines or motors in the vicinity, and give a very powerful TOOL [HAMMERS AND PRESSES stroke. The hydraulic cylinder is generally direct-connected to the slides, and the operator turns on the pressure water by a lever. work; they embody two circular blades placed with their axes parallel, and the sharp bevelled edges nearly in contact. The blades being rotated sever the plate as it is fed between them. Either straight or circular cuts may be made; true circles or disks are pro- duced by mounting the plate on a fixed stud and rotating it through a complete revolution past the cutters. IX. — HAMMERS AND PRESSES The growth in the use of hammers actuated by steam and com- pressed air, and of presses worked by water power, has been remark- able. The precursors of the power hammers were the helve and the Oliver; the first named was operated by gravity, being lifted by a circle of cams, while the second was lifted by a spring pole overhead and pulled down by the foot of the workman, acting on a lever — the hammer shaft. The first was used by the ironworkers and the second by the smiths, until displaced by the Nasmyth hammer and its extensive progeny. Even now the old helve and Oliver survive in some unprogressive shops. Steam Hammers. — The original hammer as invented by James Nasmyth was single acting, operating simply by gravity, the function of the steam being to lift the hammer for each succeeding fall. The first improvement was made by Rigby, who took the waste steam exhausted from the lower side of the piston to the upper side and so imparted some slight pressure in the descent. It was a stage between the early and the present hammers. In these, high-pressure steam is admitted above the piston to impart a more powerful blow, compounded of velocity X mass, than is obtainable by gravity; hence they are termed double-acting hammers (fig. 57). The principal difficulties which have to be surmounted in their construc- tion are those due to the severe concussion of the blows, which very sensibly shake the ground over an area of many yards. Fram- ings are made very rigid, and in the larger hammers double, enclosing the hammer head between them. The foundations are fay far the heaviest used in any machine tools. Deep piling is often resorted to, supporting crossing timber balks; or concrete is laid in mass on which the iron anvil block is bedded. This block weighs anywhere between 100 and 1000 tons. The piston and its rod and the hammer head are generally a solid steel forging, for the piston rod is a weak element and cottered or screwed fittings are not trust- worthy. Piston valves are gener- ally used in preference to ordinary D-valves, combining simplicity of fitting with good balance. The periods of steam admission are under the control of the attendant, so that the length of stroke and the force of the blow are instantly responsive to his manipulation of the operating lever. Many hammers can be set to run automatically for any given length of stroke. Pneumatic Hammers. — A suc- cessful type of hammer for the ordinary operations of the smithy is that which is actuated by com- pressed air. Though designs vary the principle is the same, namely, air compressed in a controlling cylinder (fig. 58), and brought into an operating or hammer cylinder above the piston. Cushioning,or releaseof the air be- low the piston, is under control, as is the pressure of the air above it. Drop Hammers. — The require- ments of forged work have, be- sides the power hammers ope- FIG. 58— Pneumatic Forging rated by a positive down stroke, Hammer. (W. & J. Player, Birmingham.) A , Standards. Base-plate. Anvil block. Tup. • Pallets. B, C, D, E, E, C, H, R, been the cause of the develop- ment of an equally large group which are gravity hammers only — the drop hammers. They are put into operation by a belt or belts, but the function of the belt is simply to lift the hammer Hammer cylinder, the piston to the height desired, at which rod of Lwhich is attached point it is released and falls, to D. The place of the drop hammer Air compressing cylinder. is in the lighter class of smith's Belt pulleys which reciprocate work, as that of the steam by means of the crank O, hammer lies in the heavier, but the piston in H. there is much overlapping, since Handle controlling the valve small steam hammers are rivals between H and G. to the others in light forging. But, speaking generally, the largest volume of repetitive die forging or stamping of light articles is done under drop hammers. The small arms factories and the regular stamping shops scarcely use any other type. They may be roughly divided into three great groups; the belt, the board and the latest form — the Brett lifter. In each the hammer head or tup, is lifted to any height within the range of lift, the height being controlled by the attendant at each blow. In most machines setting can be done at any constant height and the blows delivered automatically. Control is effected by hand or foot or both. Drop hammers generally have the advantage of working with greater rapidity than steam hammers. The original drop hammers, which are believed to have originated with the locksmiths of Birmingham and district, consisted of a hammer head attached to a rope, one end of which ran up over a loose pulley suspended in the roof, and the other was pulled by a man or two men, so lifting the hammer, which was then allowed to drop. The principle is embodied in many belt hammers to-day, but the pulley is driven constantly by shafting, and when the attendant pulls at the free end of the belt the friction of the pulley draws the belt over and lifts the hammer until the attendant lets it go. The weight lifted is greater than in the old type, but the labour is nevertheless very severe, and the blows are not rapid enough for quick forging. A far better machine is the board hammer. In this (fig. 59) the place of the belt is taken by an ordinary strip of board which passes between two rollers at the top of the hammer, which rollers are belt driven. The rollers are fitted on eccentric FIG. 59. — Drop Hammer — board type. Manchester.) (B. & S. Massey, A, A, Standards. B, Anvil, or baseblock. C, Tup. D, Board, fitting in slot in tup. E, F, Rollers gripping and lifting board. C, H, Pulleys actuating rollers through eccentrics J, K. L, Rod by which the amount of lift is regulated. a, Dog and lever adjustable on L, which strikes the edge b of the tup, releasing eccentrics and roller and allowing tup to fall. c, Catch on which tup rests previous to release, fitted into either one of the row of holes beneath, to suit various heights of drop. M, Mechanism struck fay the edge d of the tup, which either keeps the roller F clear of the board D, allowing the tup to fall, or brings the rollers E and F into contact, and lifts the board and tup. N, Hand-lever for operating hammer. O, Foot-lever for ditto, connected by chain e. f, Spring for lifting levers. P, Rod with nuts g, to compensate for wear on the rollers by the adjustment of roller E. HAMMERS AND PRESSES] TOOL 39 pins, so that the movement of levers causes them to grip the board for the lift, or release it for the fall, these levers being under the control of the attendant. They can also be set to operate automically for any height of lift. These types are all subject to much concussion and vibration, because the machines are self-contained ; anvil, standards and heads being rigidly bolted together, the concussion of every blow is trans- mitted through the entire mechanism. The Brett hammers (fig. 60) are designed to lessen this, in some cases by making the anvil distinct from the superstructure, and in all by connecting the lifting ropes to the ends of long levers which act something like elastic springs, absorbing vibration. The driving mechanism is also original, comprising a cylinder with a wing piston, which is rotated by steam pressure through an arc of a circle only, sufficiently to operate the lifting levers. Another advantage is that the lifter cylinder need not be immediately over the hammer, but may be situated elsewhere. The hammer can be operated by hand directly for each stroke, or be set to work automatically. FIG. 60. — 5 cwt. Belt Drop Hammer with Brett's Lifter. (Brett's Patent Lifter Co., Ltd., Coventry.) b, arrest Buffer blocks which motion of lever c. d, Lever for automatic regula- tion of valve. /, Lever for regulating amount of opening of valve by hand. K, Foot lever for holding tup in either of the stops L. e, Spring for foot lever. A, A, Uprights. B, Anvil. C, Tup. D, Belt. E, Lifter cylinder. F, Valve casing. G, Rod operating valve by lever H. a, Rock shaft. Spring Hammers are a rather smaller group than the others. In these a belt-driven pulley actuates the tup through the medium of elastic leaf springs. The length of stroke is adjustable across the face of a slotted disk on the driving shaft. Forging Machines. — The Ryder forging machine is fitted with four or five pairs of swage tools, the lower halves being fixed and the upper ones driven by a rotating eccentric shaft. The operations imitate those on the anvil by hand forging, but from 800 to 1200 blows are delivered in a minute. The swages are arranged in succes- sion, so that an operation is begun at one end and finished at the other, the attendant moving the bar rapidly through the successive swages or dies. Forging Presses. — These are rivals to the hammers, especially for heavy forgings, from which hammers are being rapidly dis- placed (fig. 61). It is now well understood that a hammer will not effect the consolidation of a massive forging right to the centre as a press will. The force of the hammer blow is not transmitted to the centre as is that of a press, nor is the hammer so useful in work of large dimensions but of no great weight. In railway and wagon shops the presses are used far more frequently than the hammers. A great advan- tage of the press is that two and three rams can be brought into operation so that a forging may be pressed from above, from below and to one side, which is of great value in complicated forms and in welding, but is not practicable in the hammers. Hence the forging presses have be- come developed for work of average dimensions as well as for the most massive. Many are of horizontal type, termed bull-dozers. Power presses for working sheet- metal articles include those for cut- ting out the blanks, termed cutting- out or blanking presses, and those for cupping or drawing the flat blank into shape if desired (fig. 62). The lower dies are held upon a bed, and the upper in a sliding ram, moved FIG. 61. — Hydraulic Forg- up and down by a cam or crank- ing Press. (Fielding & Platt, shaft. A clutch mechanism is fitted, Ltd., Gloucester.) by means of which this shaft is connected with or disconnected from ^4 fable ' , i • j . . . . ... the heavy driving-wheel at will to c Drawback ram for return- give a single stroke or a series of jng g strokes to the ram. In the normal D Horizontal ram. state the ram remains stationary at £ Controlling valves. the top position. The lightest presses are driven direct by belt on the crank-shaft pulley, but in the heavier classes spur-gearing must be interposed between the pulley shaft and the final shaft. The operation of drawing requires an encircling die which presses on the blank as it lies on its die, the cupping of the blank being effected by the downward motion of the plunger. Sectional Elevation. Front Elevation. FIG. 62. — Power Press. A, Main frame. B, Bed for attaching dies. C, Central slide. D, Outer slide. E, Belt pulleys on shaft, geared to wheel F thrown in by clutch to drive its shaft, which has two crank pins to reciprocate D and a cam disk actuating C. G Extractor rocked downwards as slide rises to raise lever H and work an ejector rod, forcing finished article out of die. This is why the machine shown in fig. 62 has an outer slide D, which is made to " dwell " with an even pressure, while the middle ram is moving down and drawing out the article. Blanking and cupping may be done as one continuous operation if the work is shallow. Inclinable presses are employed for certain classes of work, the object being to let the stamped articles slide down the slope of the bed as rapidly as they are produced, instead of having to be removed by the operator. Much work can be placed on the dies by hand, but for producing large quantities of small articles automatic feeds TOOL [PORTABLE TOOLS are employed whenever possible. A good deal of work is produced from flat sheet, supplied in the form of a roll and fed through rollers by intermittent movements to the dies. Circular turn-tables are also used, operated by ratchet devices, which turn the tables round to bring a ring of pockets, carrying the pieces, successively under the dies; the attendant keeps the pockets supplied, but his hands do not come near the dies. X.— PORTABLE TOOLS The growth of portable machine tools is one of the remarkable movements of the present day. To some extent they have always been used, notably in the drilling and tapping operations of loco- motive fire-boxes, but 'not until recently to any important extent in the ordinary fitting and erecting shops. The main reason lay in the difficulties due to transmission of power by ropes or shafts. The employment of compressed air, water, electricity and flexible shafts, by which long distances can be covered, has given new life to the portable system, which is destined to occupy a place of even greater importance than it does at present. The reason for the grow- ing desirability of these tools is to be seen in the massive character of much engine and machine construction of the present time. Although firms that undertake the largest work can generally arrange to tool the individual parts on machines of massive sizes, that only meets a part of the difficulty. Very big work cannot be treated like that of small or even medium dimensions, done repetitively; that is, it is not practicable to drill and bore and ream and provide for the fitting of every piece by the aid of templets and jigs, while the work lies on the machine, but a great deal of adjustment and mutual fitting has to be accomplished in the course of erection. Therein lies the opportunity for the portable machine. If this is not used the alternatives are partial dismantling of the work and the transference of certain portions to machines or hand work. Another cause has been the substitution of machining for much hand work formerly done on massive constructions. The principal operations for which portable tools are designed are the following: Drilling, screwing, cutting the seatings for keys, planing short portions of work, facings for the attachment of other pieces, as brackets and bearings, hammering operations, as in making welded joints, caulking the edges of boiler plates, chipping with hammer and chisel, riveting, ramming sand in foundry moulds, planing ships' decks, and some operations of lesser magnitude. Portable tools are used in various ways. The first and most obvious is to attach them directly to the casting, forging or machine which is being built up. Thus a drilling machine will be clamped just where it is required to operate. Or if it has to be used on a large plane surface as a ship's deck, an electrical machine is suitable, in which magnetic attraction is set up between the foot of the machine and the deck sufficient to hold it down. A key-seating machine will be clamped on the shaft in which a keygroove has to be cut. A drilling machine may be fastened to a pipe with a chain embracing the pipe. Very many of the drills, and all the caulking and chipping hammers, are grasped in the hands and so thrust to their work. The tapping of screw holes is mostly done in this way, a common example being the holes for the stay bolts in the fire-boxes of steam boilers. Another later method which has been introduced and practised in a few shops consists in installing a cast-iron floor-plate of large area, planed truly and provided with bolt holes and slots. On this a massive casting, forging or piece of work undergoing erection will be bolted. Then the portable tools — planers, drills, &c., as required — will be bolted to the table and brought into operation on the various sections of the work, several sometimes operating simultaneously. This method is to a certain extent coming into rivalry with the abnormal growth of machine tools, the development of which has been greatly accelerated by the massive dimensions of productions which only became possible by the substitution of steel made by the Bessemer and Siemens processes for iron. The reciprocating motion necessary to effect hammering, chipping or caulking operations is produced by the action of a solid piston, sliding in a cylinder (fig. 63) and driven sharply against the end of the tool by the inrush of compressed air, being then returned for another stroke. The strokes range in number up to as many as 2000 per minute in some cases. For heavy riveting a " long- stroke " hammer is employed, having a longer barrel than the chipping hammer shown in fig. 63, in order to obtain a greater force of blow. The operator grasps the hammer by the handle, with his fingers or thumb on the controlling lever, and as long as this is held down the blows continue. The air-supply pipe is flexible, so that it does not impede the movements of the workman. The tools at the end of the cylinder are simply held in a socket, so that they can be changed rapidly. Rotative motion can be produced either by electric or pneumatic motors, and both systems are in wide use. Pneumatic motors are very suitable when an air-compressing plant is already laid down for other tools, while if electricity is used in the works portable tools operated by this agent may be employed instead of the pneumatic ones. In the electric drills (fig. 64) a small motor is fitted within the body and_ connected by spur-gears to the spindle to effect suitable speed reduction. A switch provides for stopping and starting the motor; the current is brought through a flexible cable which, like pneumatic hose, is armoured with wire to protect it from damage. The smallest drills are simply gripped in the operator's hand and FIG. 63. — Tierney Pneumatic Chipping Hammer. (The Globe Pneumatic Engineering Co., Ltd.) A, Cylinder. B, Tool socket, carrying chisel C. D, Piston, which strikes the back of C. E, Handle, screwed and clamped to A. F, Trigger or lever clasped by operator's hand and opening valve G, admitting compressed air through connexion H, up passage J, through valve-box K, past valve L, and so against end of D, moving it towards C. As soon as the groove in the piston D registers with the hole M, air is admitted from a small hole (not shown), passes round the groove through hole M and passage N to the rear of the valve. This acting on the back of the valve throws it forward, thus shutting off the supply to the rear of the piston and permitting a small quantity of air to flow to the forward end of the piston for driving it in a backward direction. As soon as the air pressure is relieved on the back of the valve by the uncovering of exhaust holes (not seen) by the piston D, the valve is returned to the original position, owing to the air constantly pressing on the small area of the valve. pushed up to the work; larger ones are supported by a pillar and arm, against which the thrust is taken, and the feed given by turning a screw at intervals. FIG. 64. — Electrically-driven Hand Drill. (Kramos Ltd., Bath.) A, Body, cast in aluminium, with handles a, a. B, Motor, with revolving armature C, connected by spur-gears D, to the drill spindle E, fitted with ball thrust bearings. F, Switch, operated by attendant pushing in a plug; the current is brought by flexible wires through the right-hand handle a. Pneumatic drills are usually worked by little motors having oscillating cylinders, by which the air and exhaust ports are covered and uncovered. They run at a high speed and are geared down to the spindle. In some cases two cylinders are used, but often four are fitted to give a powerful and equable turning moment. Grinding machines are also built with air motors directly coupled to the wheel spindle, the machines being moved about over the work by handles. Another class of portable tools is driven, not by self-contained motors, but from an outside source of power, which is conveyed to the tools through flexible shafts built up of a series of spiral springs, or through flexible joints which form a connexion that permits the shaft to bend round corners and accommodate itself to any position in which the tool may be placed. The advantage of this is that the tool itself is much lightened, since there is no motor, and it can therefore be easily handled. Thus a drill simply contains the spindle, running in a frame which carries bevel-gears for transmitting the motion of the flexible shaft. Portable grinders also have nothing but the spindle, wheel and frame. XI. — APPLIANCES Appliances are vastly more numerous in a modern shop than in the older works, largely on account of the more repetitive character WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY] TOOL of the operations done and of the desire to eliminate human labour, with its greater cost and chances of inaccuracy in the finished pro- duct. On all machines there are numerous aids by which the fixing of the work is facilitated. Many of these consist of simple packing blocks, by which heights are adjusted. These reach their higher developments in wedge-shaped packings, some of which are operated by a screw, while others act directly by screws. In some cases the exact height can be ascertained by observing graduations on the packings. Circular work is held in V-blocks, which occur in numerous modified forms. Various kinds of straps, clamps and bolts are used for gripping work with sufficient security to enable it to withstand the stress of the heaviest cutting. The highest develop- ment of all is attained in the templets and jigs, which are now indispensable in all modern shops, and which increase in number and complexity as the product of the shop becomes more specialized. A templet is a piece of metal cut to a definite shape, which being laid upon the work becomes a guide for striking the same shape on the surface of the work with a pointed scriber, and by which the tooling of any number of similar pieces is done without the labour of lining out each separate piece. Obviously, in such a case the degree of accuracy of the tooling still depends on the machine hand, who may work exactly, or only approximately, to these lines. Hence a great advance is made in the jig, which may be defined generally as a templet that is clamped rigidly to the work, or a box in which the work to be tooled is held. No marking off is done, but the jig becomes the actual guide for the operation of the cutting tools. The operation most frequently performed in jigs is drilling. Then the holes in the jig receive and coerce the drills, so that the holes made cannot vary in the least degree from those already in the jig. As it will often happen that hundreds or thousands of similar pieces will have to be tooled in this manner, holes in jigs are generally bushed with hardened steel, which is capable of enduring very lengthy service, and which can be renewed when worn. This is a simple illustration, but many jigs are of an extremely elaborate character, for it is obvious that the cost of a jig, though it may run into many pounds, becomes a mere trifle when spread over some thousands of pieces of work. XII. — WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY There is a large range of various classes of tools for performing the operations on timber, from the rough log to the finished product. Division is effected by saws, planing and finishing to outlines by knives or cutters, boring by augers and smoothing by sandpaper. The first operation is that of tree-felling, which is often effected by machine, consisting of a reciprocating blade, working horizontally in a frame and moved by a steam cylinder. The boiler is separate, so that the machine may be transported about and set to work over a considerable area, steam being conveyed to it by a flexible pipe. When the trees are brought into the saw-mills in the form of logs, i.e. with the branches lopped off, they are often cross-cut to reduce them to suitable lengths. This operation is effected either by a reciprocating saw, operated by a pulley and crank, or by an electric motor, or else with a circular saw, travelling on a carriage which moves the saw through the log laid in front of it. The next opera- tion, that of division or breaking-down into smaller portions, is done by saws of various types, according to the class of work. The oldest form of machine is the frame-saw, which is still used very largely. It comprises a framing within which a saw-gate or saw- frame is reciprocated up and down by a crank; the frame holds a number of saws or webs of flat form, strained up tightly with wedges or cotters between the top and bottom of the frame, the distance between the saws being capable of variation to, suit boards of all thicknesses. The log is fed longitudinally to the gang of saws upon carriages, which are of two types. In the roller-feed, which is suitable tor comparatively even and straight logs, ribbed rollers in front and behind the saws obtain a bite on the top and bottom of the timber and feed it forward by their rotation. In the rack-feed the log is mounted bodily upon a long carriage that runs by rollers upon a set of rails, and the carriage is travelled along by pinions and racks, which give a positive feed regardless of the shape of the log. The carriage in the roller-feed machines is only represented by a couple of plain trolleys supporting the timber at back and front. The feed is obtained through a friction wheel of V-shape, with a smooth pawl, called the silent feed; the wheel is given a partial rotation at each down stroke of the saw-gate to turn the rollers or the pinions for carrying forward the log. The division of the timber may be either into deals or flitches, or planks or boards. In the last-named case as many as fifty saw-blades are sometimes held in a frame. For the more valuable hardwoods a single blade reciprocating saw, operated horizontally, is used very largely, the machine being termed a board-cutter. The log is clamped to a travelling table, passing underneath the saw, which is strained in a frame sliding on a cross-rail that can be adjusted up or down on a couple of up- rights like a planing machine. The saw is worked from a crank and connecting-rod. As only one board is sawn at a time the attendant is able to see the figuring of the timber and to avoid waste when bad places are encountered. A machine much more rapid in operation is the horizontal band- saw, modelled on the lines of the above machine, but with a band- saw blade running over two pulleys, at a high speed, of about 7000 ft. per minute. The saws are very thin, so that a minimum of wood is wasted in the cut or " kerf,' a very important consideration in dealing with costly woods. Vertical band-saws, having one pulley above the other so that the blade runs vertically, are very popular in America; they occupy less floor space than the horizontal types. It is necessary to present the log from the side, and it is therefore clamped by dogs upon a carriage running on rails, with provision for feeding the log laterally to the saw by sliding ways on the carriage. The use of circular saws for breaking-down is confined chiefly to squaring up heavy balks, which need only a cut on each side, or for cutting thick slabs. The thickness of the saw entails considerable waste of wood, and a large amount of power is required for driving. The machines are termed rack-benches, and comprise a long divided table built up of thin plates and travelling past the fixed saw upon rollers, the movement being effected by a rack and pinion. Re-sawing machines are those designed for further cutting-up deals, flitches, planks, &c., already broken out from the log, into boards and other scantlings. The deal and flitch frames are built on the model of the frame-saws first described, but with the differ- ences that roller feed is always used, because the stuff is smooth and easily fed, and that the back of the timber is run against fences to keep it moving in a straight line. In the double equilibrium frames, which are much favoured, there are two sets of saws in separate frames connected by rods to opposite crank-shafts, so that as one frame is rising the other is going down ; the forces are thus balanced and vibration is diminished, so that the machines can be speeded rather higher. Re-sawing is also done on circular and band saws of various types, fitted with fences for guiding the timber and controlling the thicknesses. The cross-cut saws constitute another large group. They are employed for cutting-off various classes of stuff, after breaking-down or re-sawing, and are of circular saw type. The pendulum saw is a suspended form, comprising a circular saw at the bottom of a hang- ing arm, which can be pulled over by the attendant to draw the saw through a piece of wood laid on a bench beneath. Circular saws are also mounted in tables or benches and made to part off stuff moved laterally upon a sliding-table. When there is sufficient repetition work machines with two or more saws are used to cut one or more pieces to accurate length without the necessity for measurement. The lighter classes of circular and band-saws, employed for sawing up comparatively small pieces of timber, embody numerous provisions for quickening output. The plain saw benches, with circular saws, are the simplest class, consisting merely of a framed table or bench carrying bearings for the saw spindle and a fence on the top to guide the wood. A mechanical feed is incorporated in the heavier machines to push the timber along. The rope-feed mechanism includes a drum driven at varying rates and giving motion to a rope, which is connected with a hook to the timber, to drag it along past the saw, roller supports on rails taking the weight at each end of the bench. Roller-feed saws propel the stuff by the contact of vertical fluted rollers placed opposite the fence. Other classes of saws for joinery work, &c., are constructed with rising and falling spindles, so that the saw may be made to project more or less from the table, this provision being necessary in grooving and tonguing with special types of saws. The same effect is obtained by making the table instead of the spindle rise and fall. As it is necessary to use different saws for ripping (with the grain) and cross-cutting, some machines embody two saws so that work can be cut to shape on the same machine. These " dimension saws " have two spindles at the opposite ends of a pivoted arm that can be turned on a central pin to bring one or the other saw above as required. In cases where much angular and intricate sawing is done universal benches are employed, having in addition to the double saws a tilting motion to the table, which in conjunction with various special fittings enables the sawyer to produce a large range of pieces for any class of construction. Band-saws, which have a thin narrow blade, are adapted especi- ally for curved sawing and cutting-out work which the circular saw cannot manage. The usual design of machine (fig. 65) comprises a stiff standard supporting a lower pulley in fixed bearings, and an upper one in a sliding bearing, which by means of a weight or spring is caused to rise and maintain an even tension on the saw blade as it is driven by the lower pulley, and runs the upper one. India-rubber tires are placed around the pulley rims to prevent damage to the saw teeth. The table, placed between the pulleys, may be angled for cutting bevel work. It is necessary, in order to do true work, to guide the saw blade above and below the cut, and it is therefore run in guides consisting of flat strips, in combination with anti- friction rollers which take the backward thrust of the saw. Fret or jig saws are a small class with a vertical reciprocating blade, employed chiefly for cutting out interior portions which necessitate threading the saw first through a hole. Planing machines, used for truing up the surfaces of wood after sawing, depend for their action upon rapidly revolving knives fastened to flat-sided cutter blocks. The simplest machines, the hand-planers, have a cutter cylinder revolving between two flat TOOL [WOOD-WORKING MACHINERY table slides adjustable for height to support the wood while it is pushed along over the knives by the hand. A fence guides it in a straight line. Exact thicknessing is done on another type of machine, the panel planer or thicknesser, in which the cutter cylinder revolves above -the table and the stuff is fed through by rollers above FIG. 65. — Band-sawing Machine with 30 in. pulleys. (Thomas White & Sons, Paisley.) A, Cast-iron cored frame. B, Fast and loose pulleys driving pulley C. D, Belt shipper operated by handle E. F, Upper saw pulley, with its shaft carried in swivel bearing. G, Screw for raising or lowering F to suit saw. H, Spring to maintain even tension on saw, by raising E. J, Counterbalanced guide bar, having a Jackson guide K at bottom ; K has wooden strips embracing the saw and a ball-bearing roller against which the back runs, while / is adjusted up or down to bring K as near to the work as convenient. L, Table, with slit for saw; it may be canted for bevel sawing, by means of hand worm-gear M. N, Protective casing to saw. 0, Guard to prevent saw flying over in case of breakage. and below. By altering the height of the table the thickness of wood can be varied. Double machines include a cutter cylinder above and below the timber, so that the upper and under sides are planed simultaneously. A combination of the hand-planer and the thicknesser is useful in cases where space or expenditure must be limited. When large quantities of planed stuff are wanted, such as for flooring-boards, &c., other types of machines are employed. The four-cutter planers are the most rapid in output, and the timber is passed through them at a high rate, ranging up to 150 ft. per minute. There is first a revolving cutter cylinder, which roughs off the underside of the stuff, whence it passes (being propelled by rollers) to a fixed knife which imparts a very smooth face. A little farther on in the machine two vertical cutter blocks are encountered which carry cutters to plane or tongue or mould the edges, after which another cylinder above finishes the top face. Similar types of machines are made to produce mouldings, using four cutters shaped to suit the pattern required. Moulding is also done on the vertical spindle shapers, which carry a cutter or cutters at the top of a spindle projecting through a flat table. The work is slid over the table and controlled by touching a collar below the cutter. Any form may be given to the cutters to produce different profiles. Some special moulding machines use a cutter at the end of a spindle projecting downwards from an arm overhanging a table, an arrangement which enables recessing and carving to be performed. Boring machines comprise rotating spindles and feeding mechanism to actuate augers. The single spindle machines are satisfactory enough for ordinary work, but when a number of differently sized holes have to be bored in a single piece of work, or in rapid succession, it is the practice to employ a machine with a number of spindles, so that a succession of augers of graduated diameters may be ready to use at will. Mortising or cutting slots is done in vertical machines with a reciprocating spindle, operated either by hand or by crank disk and pulleys. The tool that cuts the mortise resembles a wood- worker's chisel, but is of stouter form and has a suitable shank to fit in the spindle. The latter can be reversed to turn round and let the chisel face in the opposite direction for cutting at each end of a Machine with graduated stroke. i Sons, Johnstone.) FIG. 66. — Mortising and Boring (John McDowall <5 A, Frame. B, Auger head, driven by belt C. D, Mortising chisel reciprocated up and down by crank-disk E. F, G, Levers connecting crank-pin to spindle of D. H, Treadle connected to F; a gradually increasing stroke is imparted to the chisel by depressing H, which brings F, G into play and continually lengthens the stroke of D, cutting the mortise without shock. /, Fast and loose pulleys driving E. K, Cord actuated from shaft of /, which reverses the chisel when the handle L is moved and makes it cut in the reverse position. M, Knee raised or lowered by hand-wheel and screw. N, Cross-slide, adjusted by hand-wheel and screw. O, Longitudinal slide, moved by rack and pinion and hand- wheel. P, Timber vice. mortise. A boring spindle is often incorporated with the machine to make holes for the mortising chisel to start in (fig. 66). Another class of mortiser employs a square hollow chisel, inside of which an auger rotates and first bores a hole, leaving to the chisel the duty of finishing out the corners. The chain mortiser is another type; it has an endless chain of flat links, sharpened to make cutting teeth, and is run around a bar and a roller at a high speed, so that when fed into the wood a recess or mortise is cut out. Tenoning machines, designed to cut the reduced ends or tenons to fit in mortises, perform their work by the aid of cutter blocks, revolved on horizontal sp:ndles above and below the timber, which is fed laterally upon a sliding carriage. Dovetailing is effected by revolving cutters in machines having mechanism for pitching out the cuts, or if the work warrants it an entire row of dovetails is made at one traverse, by fitting a row of MEASUREMENT] TOOL 43 cutters and feeding simultaneously. Corner-locking, or cutting parallel tongues and grooves in the edges of boxes, &c., is a rather more rapid operation than dovetailing, and is done with suitable cutter blocks or disks of appropriate thickness and pitching apart. The general joiner, as its name implies, will do a large variety of operations, and is used in shops and on estates where a complete plant of machines would be out of the question. It usually has a circular saw and sometimes a band-saw also, together with planing and moulding apparatus, a moulding spindle, boring spindle and tenoning apparatus. The lathes used in woodworking comprise the plain hand types with a simple T-rest on which the turner rests the tools to deal with the work revolving between centres, and the copying or Blanchard lathes, in which a master form or copy is rotated and caused by the contact and coercion of a roller to move the cutter rest in a corre- sponding fashion, so that the work is cut away until it exactly matches the shape of the copy. Sand-papering machines, which finish the surface of wood to a high degree, deal with both flat and curved faces. Flat boards, panels, &c., can be done by contact against revolving drums or disks covered with glass-paper, being fed along over them by hand or by rotating rollers. In one class of machine a revolving disk is placed at the end of a series of jointed arms, by which the disk can be moved about over the work resting on a table underneath. XIII. — MEASUREMENT An advance of the greatest importance made in mechanical engineering is that of measurement. Since the beginning of the loth century steady movement has been going on in this direction until it seems impossible that much greater refinement can now be looked for. Probably the chief advances to be expected will lie in the general extension in workshop practice of the knowledge already acquired, rather than in the acquisition of higher degrees of refinement. Methods of measurement adopted in woodworking have but little application in high-class engineers' work. They are adopted, how- ever, to a considerable extent in the metal trades which are allied to engineering, as sheet metal working, girder work, &c. When a carpenter or joiner sets about constructing a door, window sash, roof or box he takes a two-foot rule, a flat lead pencil, and marks off the dimensions and lines by which he intends to work. If he has to work very carefully, then instead of using a pencil he cuts a line with the edge of a keen scriber or chisel-like tool, by which to saw, plane or chisel. If outlines are curved, the compasses are brought into requisition, and these cut a fine line or lines on the surface of the wood. But in any case the eye alone judges of the coincidence of the cutting with the lines marked. Whether the tool used be saw, chisel, gouge or plane, the woodworker estimates by sight alone whether or not the lines marked are worked by. The broad difference between his method and that of the engineer's machinist lies in this, that while the first tests his work by the eye, the second judges of its accuracy or otherwise by the sense of touch. It may seem that there cannot be very much difference in these two methods, but there is. To the first, the sixty-fourth part of an inch is a fine dimension, to the second one-thousandth of an inch is rather coarse. Now the thickness of tissue paper is about one-thousandth of an inch, and no one could possibly work so closely as that by the eye alone. Engineers' steel rules usually have one inch which is divided into one hundred parts. Tolerably keen sight is required to distinguish those divisions, and few could work by them by ocular measurement alone, that is, by placing them in direct juxtaposition with the work. A thousandth part of an inch seems by com- parison a fine dimension. But it is very coarse when considered in relation to modern methods of measurement. In what are called " limit gauges " the plugs and rings are made of slightly different dimensions. If a plug is made a thousandth of an inch less than its ring it will slip tnrough it easily with very perceptible slop. The common rule is therefore scarcely seen in modern machine shop, while the common calipers fill but a secondary place, their function having been invaded by the gauges. A minute dimension cannot be tested by lines of division on a rule, neither can a dimen- sion which should be fixed be tested with high precision with a movable caliper of ordinary type. Yet it must not be supposed that the adoption of the system of gauging instead of the older methods of rule measurement relieves men of responsibility. The instruments of precision require delicate handling. Rough forcing of gauges will not yield correct results. A clumsy workman is as much out of place in a modern machine shop as he would be in a watch factory. Without correctness of measurement mechanical constructions would be impossible, and the older device of mutual fitting of parts is of lessening value in face of the growth of the inter- changeable system, of international standards, and of automatic machine tools which are run with no intervention save that of feeding stock. The two broad divisions of measurement by sight and by contact are represented in a vast number of instruments. To the first- named belong the numerous rules in wood and metal and with English and metric divisions, and the scales which are used for setting out dimensions on drawings smaller than those of the real objects, but strictly proportional thereto. The second include all the gauges. These are either fixed or movable, an important sub- division. The first embrace two groups — one for daily workshop service, the other for testing and correcting the wear of these, hence termed " reference gauges." They are either made to exact standard sizes, or they embody " limits of tolerance," that is, allowances for certain classes of fits, and for the minute degrees of inaccuracy which are permissible in an interchangeable system of manufacture. The movable group includes a movable portion, either correspond- ing with one leg of a caliper or having an adjustable rod, with pro- vision for precise measurement in the form of a vernier or of a screw thread divided micrometrically. These may be of general character for testing internal or external diameters, or for special functions as screw threads. Subtitles indicate some particular aspect or design of the gauges, as " plug and ring," " caliper," " horseshoe," " depth," " rod," " end measure," &c. So severe are the require- ments demanded of instruments of measurement that the manu- facture of the finer kinds remains a speciality in the hands of a very few firms. The cost and experience necessary are so great that prices rule high for the best instruments. As these, however, are not required for ordinary workshop use, two or three grades are manufactured, the limits of inaccuracy being usually stated and a guarantee given that these are not exceeded. Measurement by Sight. Rules and Scales. — The rules are used for marking off distances and dimensions in conjunction with other instruments, as scribers, compasses, dividers, squares; and for test- ing and checking dimensions when marked, and work in course of reduction or erection, directly or from calipers. They are made in boxwood and in steel, the latter being either rigid or flexible, as when required to go round curves. Rules are fitted in combination with other instruments, as sliding calipers, squares, depth gauges, &c. The scales are of boxwood, of ivory, the value of which is dis- counted by its shrinkage, and of paper. They are of flat section with bevelled edges, and of oval and of triangular sections, each giving a thin edge to facilitate readings. They are fully divided, or open divided; in the first case each division is alike subdivided, in the second only the end ones are thus treated. The Gauges. Fixed Gauges. — These now embrace several kinds, the typical forms being represented by the cylindrical or plug and ring gauges and by the caliper form or snap gauges. The principle in each is that a definite dimension being embodied in the gauge, the workman has not to refer to the rule, either directly or through the medium of a caliper. This distinction, though slight, is of immense importance in modern manufacturing. Broadly it corre- sponds with the difference between the older heterogeneous and the present interchangeable systems. Plug and Ring Gauges. — The principal ones and the originals of all the rest, termed Whitworth gauges after the inventor, are the plug and ring gauges (fig. 67, A and B). The principle on which they depend is that if the two gauges are made to fit with perfect accuracy, without tightness on the one hand or slop on the other, then any work which is measured or turned and bored or ground by them will also fit with equal accuracy. Bored holes are tested by the plug gauge, and spindles are tested by the ring gauge, and such spindles and holes make a close fit if the work is done carefully. Of course, in prac- tice, there is very much variation in the character of the work done, and the finest gauges are too fine for a large proportion of engineers' work. It is possible to make these gauges within 5^ of an inch. AB p, nd But they are seldom required so c' niffprem-p o-amrp fine as that for shop use; VAa is £' g™ Ded reference eau^e generally fine enough. For general "• shop work the gauges are made to within about r^Va of an inch. Standard gauges in which the plug and ring are of the same diameter will only fit by the application of a thin film of oil and by keeping the plug in slight movement within the ring. Without these precautions the two would " seize " so hard that they could not be separated without force and injury. Plug and Ring v. Horseshoe Gauges. — The horseshoe, snap or caliper gauges (fig. 68) are often used in preference to the plug and ring types. They are preferred because the surfaces in contact are narrow. These occur in various designs, with and without handles, separately and in combination and in a much larger range of dimensions than the plug and ring. Ring gauges are not quite such delicate instruments as the fixed caliper gauges. But since they measure diameter only, and turned work is not always quite circular, the caliper gauges are not so convenient for measurement as the round gauges, which fit in the same manner as the parts have to fit to one another. Fixed Gauges. Limit Gauges. — Some fits have to be what is termed in the shops " driving fits," that is, so tight that they 44 TOOL [MEASUREMENT have to be effected by driving with a hammer or a press, while others have to be " working fits," suitable, say, for the revolution of a loose pulley on its shaft or of an axle in its bearings. The " limit " or " difference gauges " (figs. 67 and 68) are designed for producing these working fits ; that is, the plug and ring gauges differ in dimen- sions so that the work bored will drive tightly, or slide freely over FIG. 68. A, Separate caliper or snap C, Difference gauge. gauges. D, Newall adjustable limit B, Combined internal and ex- gauge. ternal gauges. a, b, Plugs. the work turned. These are variously sub-classified. The system which is generally accepted is embodied in the gauges by the Newall Engineering Co. These embrace force fits, which require the applica- tion of a screw or hydraulic press; driving fits, that require less power, as that of a hammer; push fits, in which a spindle can be thrust into its hole by hand; and running fits, such as that of shafts in bearings. Fixed gauges are made for each of these, but as this involves a heavy outlay the Newall firm have adjustable limit gauges (fig. 68, D) for external dimensions, the standard plug being used for holes. The setting is done by screwed plugs or anvils adjusted by reference bars. In all these gauges the " go on " and " not go on " ends respectively are stamped on the gauge, or the equivalents of -f- and — . Fixed Reference Gauges. Reference Disks and End Measuring Rods. — Shop working gauges become in time so damaged by service that they fail to measure so accurately as when new. To correct these errors reference gauges are provided, by which the inaccuracy of the worn ones is brought to the test. These are never used in the shops for actual measurement of work, but are only kept for checking the truth of the working gauges. They include disk, stepped and end measurement gauges. The disk and the stepped are used for testing the ring gauges, the stepped kind comprising essentially a collection of disks in one piece (fig. 67, D). The end measure pieces test the external gauges. The end measure standard lengths made by the Pratt & Whitney Co. are so accurate that any sizes taken at random in any numbers from } in. to 4 in., varying by sixteenths of an inch, will, when placed end to end, make up an exact length ; this is a difficult test, since slight variations in the lengths of the components would add up materially when multiplied by the number of pieces. The ends are ground off with diamond dust or emery in a special machine under water, and are so true that one piece will support another by cohesive force, and this though the surfaces are less than } in. square. Movable Gauges. — This extensive group may be regarded as compounded of the common caliper and the Whitworth measuring machine. They are required when precise dimensions have to be ascertained in whole numbers and minute fractional parts. They combine the sense of touch by contact, as in the calipers, with the exact dimensions obtained by inspection of graduated scales, either the vernier or the micrometer screw. If gauges must not vary by more than nrfrinr of an inch, which is the limit imposed by modern shop ideals, then instruments must be capable of measuring to finer dimensions than this. Hence, while the coarser classes of micrometers read directly to tiftnv Part of an inch, the finest measure up to-iojftnnj of an inch, about 200 times as fine as the diameter of a human hair. They range in price correspondingly from about a sovereign to £100. Ttif Calipers. — Common calipers (fig. 69) are adjusted over or within work, and the dimensions are taken therefrom by a rule or a gauge. They usually have no provision for minute adjustment beyond the gentle tapping of one of the legs when setting. In some forms screw adjustment is provided, and in a few instances a vernier attachment on the side of the pivot opposite to the legs. Vernier Calipers. — The vernier fitting, so named after its inventor, Pierre Vernier, in 1631, is fitted to numerous calipers and caliper rules. It is applied to calipers for engineers' use to read toryinr of an inch without requiring a magnifier. The beam of the caliper is divided into inches and tenths of the inch, and each tenth into fourths and the vernier into twenty-five parts, or the beam is divided into fiftieths of an inch (fig. 70) and the vernier has 20 divisions to 19 on the rule. The caliperiaws are adapted to take both external and internal dimensions. These " beam calipers " are also made for metric divisions. Minor variations in design by different manufacturers are numerous. FIG. 69. — Calipers. A, Ordinary external type, adjusted by tapping the legs. B, Type adjusted by screw in auxiliary leg. C, Screw calipers, opened by contraction of curved spring and closed by nut. D, Self-registering caliper, with pointer moving over quadrant. E, Common internal type. F, Screw type with spring. G, Combined internal and external for measuring chambered holes. H, Compass caliper for finding centres. J, Keyhole caliper for measuring from hole to outside of boss. FIG. 70.— Vernier Caliper. A, Beam; B, vernier; C, fixed jaw; D, movable jaw; E, clamping head; F, abutment head, with adjusting screw a, for fine adjustment of D. So oo o FIG. 71. — Measuring Machine. (The Newall Engineering Co.) A, Hollow base or bed, mounted on three points. B, Measuring or fast headstock. C, Movable head, or tailstock. D, Spirit-level to indicate alterations in length of piece being measured due to changes in temperature, termed the indi- cator or comparator. E, Measuring screw. F, Nut for rapid adjustment of ditto. G, Knob of speed screw for slow movement of ditto. H, Dividing and measuring wheel. J, Vernier or reading bar. a, a, Points between which contact is made. MEASUREMENT] TOOL 45 Micrometer Calipers are the direct offspring of the Whitworth measuring machine. In the original form of this machine a screw of 20 threads to the inch, turned by a worm-wheel of 200 teeth and single-threaded worm, had a wheel on the axis of the worm with 250 divisions on its circumference, so that an adjustment of IB oh) OB of an inch was possible. The costly measuring machines made to-day have a dividing wheel on the screw, but they combine modifications to ensure freedom from error, the fruits of prolonged experience. Good machines are made by the Whitworth, the Pratt & Whitney, the Newall (fig. 71), and the Brown & Sharpe firms. These are used for testing purposes. But there are immense numbers of small instruments, the micrometer calipers (fig. 72), made for general shop use, measuring directly to rjVj of an inch, and in the B FIG. 72. — Micrometer Calipers. (Brown & Sharpe Mfg. Co.) A, Frames. a, Adjusting nuts for taking up B, Anvil or abutment. C, Hub divided longitudinally. b, D, Spindle with micrometer1 c, screw. E, Thimble, divided circularly. wear. Clamping nut. Ratchet stop, which slips under undue pressure to ensure uniform measurement. hands of careful men easily to half and quarter thousandths ; these cost from £i to £i, IDS. only. In these the subdivision of the turns of the screw is effected by circular graduations. Usually the screw at a. a FIG. 73. — Beam Micrometer Calipers. C, Abutment block with screw c for fine adjustment. d, Clamping screws. D, Micrometer. e. Anvil. A, Beam. B, Head, adjustable by equal inch divisions, by lines a, a, or holes b, b, and plug b' holes bushed. pitch is 40 to the inch, and the circular divisions number 25, so that a movement of one division indicates that the screw has been ad- vanced fa of 4V °r 10*00 °f an. inch. Provision for correcting or taking up the effects of wear is included in these designs (e.g. at a in fig. 72), and varies with different manufacturers. A vernier is sometimes fitted in addition, in very high class instruments, to the circular divisions, so that readings of ten thousandths of an inch can be taken. Beam micrometer calipers (fig. 73) take several inches in length, the micrometer being reserved for fractional parts of the inch only. Depth Gauges. — It is often necessary to measure the depth of one portion of a piece of work below another part, or the height of one portion relatively to a lower one. To hold a rule perpendicularly and take a sight is not an accurate method, because the same objections apply to this as to rule measurement in general. There are many depth gauges made with rule divisions simply, and then these have the advantage of a shouldered face which rests upon the Upper portion of the work and from which the rule measurement is FIG. 74. — Depth Gauges. A, Plain round rod a, sliding in head b, and pinched with screw c. B, Rule a, graduated into inches or metric divisions, sliding on head b, in grooved head of clamping screw c. C, Slocomb depth gauge, fitted with micrometer, a, Rod marked in half inches, sliding in head b ; c, hub ; d, thimble corresponding with similar divided parts in the micrometer calipers; e, clamp- ing screw. taken (fig. 74). These generally have a clamping arrangement. But for very accurate work either the vernier or the micrometer fitting is applied, so that depths can be measured in thousandths of an inch, or sometimes in sixty-fourths, or in metric subdivisions. FIG. 75. — Rod Gauges. A, Pratt & Whitney gauge, a, Tube split at ends; 6, 6, chucks clamping tube on plain rod c, and screwed end d. Rough adjustment is made on rod c, of which several are provided; fine adjustment is by screwed end d. B, Sawyer gauge, a, Body; 6, extension rods for rough adjust- ment, several being supplied and pinched with screw c; d, screwed end with graduated head ; e, reading arm extending from body over graduations; /, clamping screw. Rod Gauges. — When internal diameters have to be taken, too large for plug gauges or calipers to span, the usual custom is to set a rod of iron or steel across, file it till it fits the bore, and then measure its length with a rule. More accurate as well as adjust- able are the rod gauges (fig. 75) to which the vernier or the micro- meter are fitted. These occur in a few varied designs. Screw Thread Gauges. — The taking of linear dimensions, though provided for so admirably by the systems of gauging just dis- cussed, does not cover the important section of screw measurement. This is a department of the highest importance. In most English shops the only test to-day of the size of a screw or nut is the use of a standard screw or nut. That there is variation in these is evidenced by the necessity for fitting nuts to bolts when large 46 TOOL [MEASUREMENT numbers of these are being assembled, after they have been used in temporary erections or when nuts are brought from the stores to fit studs or bolts cut in the shop. This method may suffice in many classes of work, but it is utterly unsuited to an interchange- able system; and when there is a fair amount of the latter firms sometimes make thread gauges of their own, in general form like the plug and ring gauges, using a hard quality of steel for small sizes or a tough quality of cast iron for the larger. These, though not hardened, will endure for a long time if treated carefully. But B 2 FIG. 76. — Screw Thread Gauges. (Pratt & Whitney Co.) A, Plug gauge; a, size of tapping hole; b, thread. B, Ring gauge; a, pins to prevent lateral movement; b, adjusting screw for opening gauge ; c, screw for closing ditto. though very useful and far better than none at all they lack two essentials. They are simply accommodation gauges, made to an existing tap or die, and do not therefore embody any precise abso- lute measurement, nor do they include any means for measuring variations from standard, nor are they hardened. To produce gauges to fulfil these require- ments demands an original standard to work by, micrometric measurements, and the means of grinding after the harden- ing process. These requirements are fulfilled in the screw thread gauges and calipers of the Pratt & Whitney and the Brown & Sharpe companies. The essen- tial feature of a screw gauge is that it measures the sides of the threads with- out risk of a possible false reading due to contact on the bottom or top of the V. This is fulfilled by flatting the top and making the bottom of the gauge keen. The Pratt & Whitney gauges are made as a plug and ring (fig. 76), the plug being solid and the ring capable of precise adjustment round it. There is a plain round end, ground and lapped exactly to the standard size of the bottom of the thread, a dimension which is of an inch (fig. 77). They are used in some kinds of lathe chuck work, but their principal value is in fitting and erecting the finer mechanisms. FIG. 77. — Indicator. A, Base; B, stem; C, arm; D, pointer or feeler, pivoted at a, and magnifying movement of the work E upon the scale b; F, spring to return D to zero. Surface Plates and Cognate Forms. — Allied to the gauges are the instruments for testing the truth of plane surfaces: the surface plates, straight-edges and winding strips. The origination of plane surfaces by scraping, until the mutual coincidence of three plates, is secured, was due to Whitworth. These surface plates (fig. 78, A) fill an important place in workshop practice, since in the best work plane surfaces are tested on them and corrected by scraping. To a large extent the precision grinding machines have lessened the value of scraping, put it is still retained for machine slides and other work of a similar class. In the shops there are two classes of surface plates: those employed daily about the shops, the accuracy of which becomes impaired in time, and the standard C, Common square. D, Square with adjustable blade. obliterated in the threaded end because of the bottoms of the angles being made keen for clearance. There are three kinds of this class of gauge made; the first and most expensive is hardened and ground in the angle, while the second is hardened but not ground. The first is intended for use when a very perfect gauge is required, the second for ordinary shop usage. The third is made unhardened for purposes of reference simply, and it is not brought into contact with the work to be tested at all, but measurements are taken by calipers; in every detail it repre- sents the standard threads. The Brown & Sharpe appliance is of quite a different character. It is a micrometer caliper having a fixed V and a movable point between which the screw to be measured is embraced. By the reading of the micrometer and the use of a constant the diameter of any thread in the middle of the thread can be estimated. Miscellaneous. — The foregoing do not exhaust the gauges. There are gauges for the sectional shapes of screw threads of all pitches, gauges for drilled holes that have to be screwed, gauges for the depth and thickness of the teeth of gear-wheels, gauges for the tapers of machine spindles, gauges for key-grooves, &c. There are also the woodworker's gauges — the marking and cutting, the panel, the mortise and the long-tooth. Indicators are a small group of measuring instruments of a rather peculiar character. They magnify the most minute error by adapta- tions of long and short lever arms. The Bath, the Starrett and the Brown & Sharpe are familiar in high-class shops. Some simply magnify inaccuracy, but in one type an index reads to thousandths FIG. 78. A, Surface plate ; a, protecting cover for ditto when not in use. B, Large ribbed straight-edge. plate or plates employed for test and correction. Straight-edges are derived from the surface plates, or may be originated like them. The largest are made of cast-iron, ribbed and curved on one edge, to prevent flexure, and provided with feet (fig. 78, B). But the smaller straight-edges are gener- ally parallel, and a similar pair constitutes " winding strips," by which any twist or departure from a plane surface is detected. Squares, of which there are numer- ous designs (fig. 78, C and D), are straight-edges set at right angles. Bevels or Devel-squares (fig. 79), are straight-edges comprising a stock and a blade, which are ad- justable for angle in relation to each other. Shop protractors often pJG „ include a blade adjustable for ^ Common bevel angle, forming a bevel with gradua- B' Universal bev±l for test;ng tions. Spirit-levels test the hon- , ana\K zontal truth of surfaces. Many levels have two bubble tubes at right angles with each other, one of which tests the truth of vertical faces. Generally levels have flat feet, but some are made of V-section to fit over shafting. The common plumb-bob is in frequent use for locating the vertical position of centres not in the same horizontal plane. When a TOOLE— TOP 47 plumb-bob is combined with a parallel straight-edge the term plumb- rule is applied. It tests the truth of vertical surface more accurately than a spirit-level. (J. G. H.) TOOLE, JOHN LAWRENCE (1832-1906), English actor, son of an old employe of the East India Company who for many years acted as toast-master in the City of London, was born in London on the i2th of March 1832. He was educated at the City of London School, and started life in a wine merchant's office; but his natural propensity for comic acting was not to be denied, and after some practice as an amateur with the City Histrionic Club, he definitely took to the stage in 1852, appearing in Dublin as Simmons in The Spitalfields Weaver. He gained experience in the provinces, and in 1854 made his first professional appearance in London at the St James's theatre, acting Samuel Pepys in The King's Rival and Weazel in My Friend the Major. In 1857, having just had a great success as Paul Pry, he met Henry Irving in Edinburgh, and recommended him to go to' London; and their friendship remained thenceforth of the closest kind. In 1858 Toole joined Webster at the Adelphi, and established his popularity as a comedian, among other parts creating Joe Spriggins in Id on parle fran$ais. In 1868 he was engaged at the Gaiety, appearing among other pieces in Thespis, the first Gilbert and Sullivan collaboration. His fame was at its height in 1874, when he went on tour to the United States, but he failed to reproduce there the success he had in England. In 1879 he took the " Folly " theatre in London, which he renamed " Toole's " in 1882. He was constantly away in the provinces, but he pro- duced here a number of plays: H. J. Byron's Upper Crust and Auntie; Pinero's Hester's Mystery and Girls and Boys; burlesques such as Paw Claudian, and, later, J. M. Barrie's Walker, London. But his appearances gradually became fewer, and after 1893 he was seen no more on the London stage, while his theatre was pulled down shortly afterwards for an extension of Charing Cross Hospital. He published his reminiscences in 1888. Toole married in 1854; and the death of his only son in 1879, and later of his wife and daughter, had distressing effects on his health; attacks of gout, from 1886 onwards, crippled him, and ultimately he retired to Brighton, where after a long illness he died on the 3oth of July 1906. In his prime he was immensely popular, and also immensely funny in a way which depended a good deal on his tricks and delivery of words. He excelled in what may be called Dickens parts — combining humour and pathos. He was a good man of business, and left a considerable fortune, out of which he made a number of bequests to charity and to his friends. His genial and sympathetic nature was no less conspicuous off the stage than on it. TOOMBS, ROBERT (1810-1885), American political leader, was born near Washington, Wilkes county, Georgia, on the 2nd of July 1810. He was educated at Franklin College (univer- sity of Georgia), at Union College, Schenectady, New York, from which he graduated in 1828, and at the law school of the university of Virginia. He was admitted to the bar in 1830, and served in the Georgia House of Representatives (1838, 1840-1841 and 1843-1844), in the Federal House of Represen- tatives (1845-1853), and in the United States Senate (1853- 1861). He opposed the annexation of Texas, the Mexican War, President Polk s Oregon policy, and the Walker Tariff of 1846. In common with Alexander H. Stephens and Howell Cobb, he supported the Compromise Measures of 1850, denounced the Nashville Convention, opposed the secessionists in Georgia, and helped to frame the famous Georgia platform (1850). His position and that of Southern Unionists during the decade 1850- 1860 has often been misunderstood. They disapproved of secession, not because they considered it wrong in principle, but because they considered it inexpedient. On the dissolution of the Whig party Toombs went over to the Democrats. He favoured the Kansas-Nebraska Bill, the admission of Kansas under the Lecompton Constitution, and the English Bill (1858), and on the 24th of June 1856 introduced in the Senate the Toombs Bill, which proposed a constitutional convention in Kansas under conditions which were acknowledged by various anti-slavery leaders as fair, and which mark the greatest con- cessions made by the pro-slavery senators during the Kansas struggle. The bill did not provide for the submission of the constitution to popular vote, and the silence on this point of the territorial law under which the Lecompton Constitution of Kansas was framed in 1857 was the crux of the Lecompton struggle (see KANSAS). In the presidential campaign of 1860 he supported John C. Breckinridge, and on the 22nd of December, soon after the election of Lincoln, sent a telegram to Georgia which asserted that " secession by the 4th of March next should be thundered forth from the ballot-box by the united voice of Georgia." He delivered a farewell address in the Senate (Jan. 7, 1861), returned to Georgia, and with Governor Joseph E. Brown led the fight for secession against Stephens and Herschel V. Johnson (1812-1880). His influence was a most powerful factor in inducing the " old-line Whigs " to support immediate secession. After a short term as secretary of state in President Davis's cabinet, he entered the army (July 21, 1861),, and served first as a brigadier-general in the Army of Northern Virginia and after 1863 as adjutant and inspector-general of General G. W. Smith's division of Georgia militia. He then spent two years in exile in Cuba, France and England, but returned to Georgia in 1867, and resumed the practice of law. Owing to his refusal to take the oath of allegiance, he was never restored to the full rights of citizenship. He died at his home in Washington, Georgia, on the 1 5th of December 1885. See Pleasant A. Stovall, Robert Toombs, Statesman, Speaker, Soldier, Sage (New York, 1892). TOOTHWORT, the popular name for a small British plant of curious form and growth, known botanically as Lathraea squa- maria. It grows parasitically on roots, chiefly of hazel, in shady places such as hedge sides. It consists of a branched whitish underground stem closely covered with thick fleshy colourless leaves, which are bent over so as to hide the under surface; irregular cavities communicating with the exterior are formed in the thickness of the leaf. On the inner wall of these chambers are stalked hairs, which when stimulated by the touch of an insect send out delicate filaments by means of which the insect is killed and digested. The only portions that appear above ground are the short flower-bearing shoots, which bear a spike of two-lipped dull purple flowers. The scales which represent the leaves also secrete water, which escapes and softens the ground around the plant. Lathraea is closely allied to another British parasitic plant, broomrape (Orobanche). TOOWOOMBA, a town of Aubigny county, Queensland, Australia, 76 m. by rail W. by N. of Ipswich, and 101 m. from Brisbane. It is situated on the summit of the Great Dividing Range, and is the centre of the rich pastoral and agricultural district of Darling Downs. The chief buildings are the town-hall, a large theatre, a school of arts and a library; the Christian Brothers College and several handsome churches. The industries are brewing, tanning, soap-boiling, flour-milling, malting, iron- founding, saw-milling and jam-making. Vineyards are culti- vated by a German colony and large quantities of wine are made. The town received a municipal charter in 1860, and during the governorship of Lord Lamington (1896-1897) became the summer residence of the governor and his staff. Pop. (1901), 9137; within the five-mile radius, 14,087. TOP (cf. Dan. top, Ger. Topf, also meaning pot), a toy consist- ing of a body of conical, circular or oval shape with a point or peg on which it turns or is made to whirl. The twisting or whirl- ing motion is applied by whipping or lashing when it is a " whip- ping top " or " peg-top," or by the rapid unwinding of a string tightly wound round a head or handle. When the body is hollow this results in a whirring noise, whence the name " hum- ming top." Other kinds of tops are made as supports for coloured disks which on revolving show a kaleidoscopic variation of patterns. The top is also used in certain games of chance, when it is generally known as a " teetotum." There are many references to it in ancient classical literature. The Greek terms for the toy are /3e/ij3t^, which was evidently the whipping or peg top (Arist. Birds, 1461), and orpo/SiXos, a humming top, spun by a string (Plato, Rep. iv. 436 E.). In Homer (//. xiv. 413) the word TOPAZ— TOPEKA orpo/Lt/Sos seems to point to the humming top. The Latin name for the top was turbo. This word and the Greek /ioju/3os are sometimes translated by " top " when they refer to the instrument used in the Dionysiac mysteries, which, when whirled in the air by a string, produced a booming noise. This was no doubt the equivalent of the " bull roarer " (q.v.). Strutt (Games and Pastimes, 491) says that the top was known in England as early as the I4th century. For the scientific properties of the top see GYROSCOPE and GYROSTAT. This word must be distinguished from that signifying the highest or uppermost part of anything. It appears to have meant origin- ally a tuft or crest of hair, cf. Ger. Zopf, Du. top, Icel. topps, &c. ; it is allied to Eng. " tap," a spike for a cask, and " tip,' point. Some etymologists have identified the two words, the toy being so called from spinning on its top or tip, but the two German forms seem to prove conclusively that the words are different. TOPAZ, a mineral usually found in connexion with granitic rocks and used, when fine, as a gem-stone. It is believed that the topaz of modern mineralogists was unknown to the ancients, and that the stone described under the name of Toirdftos, in allusion to its occurrence on an island in the Red Sea known as TOTraf tos i^tros, was the mineral which is now termed chrysolite or peridot (q.v.). The Hebrew pitdah, translated " topaz " in the Old Testament, may also have been the chrysolite. Topaz crystallizes in the orthorhombic system, usually with a prismatic habit (figs, i and 2). Many of the crystals, like those from Saxony and Siberia, are rich in faces, and present with the prisms a complicated combination of pyramids and domes. The faces of the prism-zone are usually striated vertically. Doubly- terminated crystals are rare, and sometimes apparently hemi- morphic. The mineral presents a perfect cleavage transverse M FIG. i. M FIG. 2. to the long axis of the prism, and the cleavage-plane often has a pearly lustre. The chemical composition of the topaz has given rise to much discussion, but it is now generally regarded as an aluminium fluo-silicate having the formula Al2F2SiC>4. It was shown by Professor S. L. Penfield and Mr J. C. Minor that the fluorine may be partially replaced by hydroxyl. When strongly heated topaz suffers considerable loss of weight. Sir D. Brewster found in topaz numerous microscopic cavities containing fluids, some of which have received the names of brewsterlinite and cryptolinite. Possibly some of the liquid inclusions may be hydrocarbons. The topaz, when pure, may be colourless, and if cut as a brilliant has been mistaken for diamond. It has, too, the same specific gravity, about 3-5. It is, however, greatly inferior in hardness, the hardness of topaz being only 8; and it has lower refractivity and dispersive powers: moreover, being an orthorhombic mineral, it possesses double refraction. From phenacite and from rock-crystal, for which it may be mistaken, it is distinguished by being biaxial and by having a much higher specific gravity. The topaz becomes electric by heating, by friction or by pressure. Colourless limpid topazes are known in Brazil as pingos d'agoa, or " drops of water," whilst in England they pass in trade as " minas novas," from a locality in the state of Minas Geraes in Brazil. Coloured topazes usually present various shades of yellow, blue or brown. The pleochroism is fairly marked, the colour of the sherry-yellow crystals from Brazil being generally resolved by the dichroscope into a brownish-yellow and a rose-pink. The colour in many cases is unstable, and the brown topazes of Siberia are specially liable to suffer bleaching by exposure to sunlight. In 1750 a Parisian jeweller named Dumelle discovered that the yellow Brazilian topaz becomes pink on exposure to a moderate heat, and this treatment has since been extensively applied, so that nearly all the pink topaz occurring in jewelry has been artificially heated. Such " burnt topaz " is often known as " Brazilian ruby," a name applied also to the natural red topaz, which, however, is excessively rare. " Brazilian sapphire " is the term sometimes given to blue topaz, but the colour is usually pale. The delicate green topaz has been incorrectly called aquamarine, which is a name applicable only to the sea-green beryl (q.v.). According to A. K. Coomaraswamy, yellow sapphire is often sold as topaz in Ceylon, where yellow topaz is unknown, whilst pink corundum is frequently called there " king topaz." The topaz is cut on a leaden wheel, and polished with tripoli. It is generally step-cut, or table-cut, but its beauty is best developed when in the form of a brilliant. Cut topazes of large size are known, and it is said that the great " Braganza diamond " of Portugal is probably a topaz. Topaz usually occurs in granitic and gneissose rocks, often in greisen, and is commonly associated with cassiterite, tourmaline and beryl. It seems to have been formed, in many cases, by pneumato- lytic action. In the west of England it is found in Cornwall, notably at St Michael's Mount and at Cligga Head near St Agnes. It occurs also in Lundy Island. The finest British topaz is found in the Cairngorm group of mountains in the central Highlands, especially at Ben a Buird. Rolled pebbles occur in the bed of the Avon in Banffshire. Beautiful, though small, crystals occur in the drusy cavities of the granite of the Mourne Mountains in Ireland. The famous topaz-rock of the Schneckenstein, near Auerbach, in Saxony, yields pale yellow crystals, formerly cut for jewelry, and it is said that these do not become pink on heating. Fine topazes occur in Russia, at several localities in the Urals and in the Adun-chalon Mountains, near Nerchinsk, in Siberia. A very fine series from the Koksharov collection is in the British Museum. Beautiful crystals of topaz are found in Japan, especially at Taka- yama in the province of Mino, and at Tanokamiyama in Omi province. Ceylon and _ Burma occasionally yield topazes. Brazil is a famous locality, the well-known sherry-yellow crystals coming from Ouro Preto, formerly called Villa Rica, the capital of Minas Geraes, where they occur in a kaolinitic matrix, resulting from the alteration of a mica-schist, which is regarded by Professor O. A. Derby as a metamorphosed igneous rock. Topaz occurs in the tin-drifts of New South Wales, especially in the New England district; it has been discovered in the Coolgardie goldfield. West Australia; and it is found also in the tinfields of Tasmania and on Flinders Island in Bass's Strait. Fine topaz has been worked near Pike's Peak in Colorado, and in San Diego county, California. The mineral occurs in rhyolite at Nathrop in Chaffee county and Chalk Mountain in Summit county, Colorado, and in trachyte near Sevier Lake, Utah. The occurrence of topaz in these volcanic rocks is very notable, and contrasts with its common occurrence in granites. It is found in like manner in rhyolite at San Luis Potosi in Mexico; and beautiful little limpid crystals accompany stream-tin at Durango. Common topaz occurs in coarse crystals at many localities. A columnar variety from the tin-districts of Saxony and Bohemia, and from Mt Bischoff in Tasmania, is known as pycnite (nvnvk, dense) ; whilst a coarse opaque topaz from granite near Falun, in Sweden, has been termed pyrophysa- lite (irDp, fire; 4>woa>, to blow), in allusion to its behaviour when heated. " Oriental topaz " is the name sometimes given to yellow corun- dum, a mineral readily distinguished from true topaz by superior hardness and density. Yellow and smoke-tinted quartz, or cairn- gorm, is often known as " Scotch topaz " or " Spanish topaz," according to its locality; but these, on the contrary, are inferior in hardness and density. The chief differences between the three minerals may be seen in the following table, in which they are arranged in order of hardness, density and refractivity : — Scotch Topaz. True Topaz. Oriental Topaz. Hardness .... Specific gravity Refractive indices Crystallization Chemical composition 1-6 1-54, 1-55 Hexagonal SiO2 8 3-5 1-61, 1-62 Orthorhombic Al2F2SiO4 9 4 1-76, 1-77 Hexagonal A1203 (F. W. R.*) TOPEKA, a city and the county-seat of Shawnee county, Kansas, U.S.A., the capital of the state, situated on both sides of TOPELIUS— TOPFFER 49 the Kansas river, in the east part of the state, about 60 m. W. of Kansas City. Pop. (1900), 33,608, of whom 3201 were foreign- born (including 702 Germans, 575 Swedes, 512 English, 407 Russians, 320 Irish, &c.) and 4807 were negroes; (1910, census), 43,684. It is served by the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe, the Chicago, Rock Island & Pacific, the Union Pacific and the Missouri Pacific railways. The city is regularly laid out on a fairly level prairie bench, considerably elevated above the river and about 890 ft. above sea-level. Among its prominent build- ings are the United States government building, the Capitol (erected 1866-1903 at a cost of $3,200,589 and one of the best state buildings in the country), the county court house, the public library (1882), an auditorium (with a seating capacity of about 5000), the Y.M.C.A. building, a memorial building, housing historical relics of the state, and Grace Church Cathedral (Protestant Episcopal). The city is the see of a Protestant Episcopal bishop. In the Capitol are the library (about 6000 volumes) and natural history collections of the Kansas Academy of Science, and the library (30,000 books, 94,000 pamphlets and 28,500 manuscripts) and collections of the Kansas State Historical Society, which publishes Kansas Historical Collections (1875 sqq.) and Biennial Reports (1879 sqq.). The city is the seat of Washburn (formerly Lincoln) College (1865), which took its present name in 1868 in honour of Ichabod Washburn of Wor- cester, Massachusetts, who gave it $25,000; in 1909 it had 783 students (424 being women). Other educational establishments are the College of the Sisters of Bethany (Protestant Episcopal, 1861), for women, and the Topeka Industrial and Educational Institute (1895), for negroes. In Topeka are the state insane asylum, Christ's Hospital (1894), the Jane C. Stormont Hospital and Training School for nurses (1895), the Santa Fe Railway Hospital, the Bethesda Hospital (1906) and the St Francis Hospital (1909). Topeka is an important manufacturing city. Its factory product was valued in 1905 at $14,448,869. Natural gas is piped from southern Kansas for manufacturing and domestic use. The first white settlement on the site of Topeka was made in 1852, but the city really originated in 1854, when its site was chosen by a party from Lawrence. It was from the first a free- state stronghold. More than one convention was held here in Territorial days, including that which framed the Topeka Constitution of 1855; and some of the meetings of the free-state legislature chosen under that document (see KANSAS) were also held here. Topeka was made the temporary state capital under the Wyandotte Constitution, and became the permanent capital in 1861. It was first chartered by the pro-slavery Territorial legislature in 1857, but did not organize its government until 1858 (see LAWRENCE). In 1881 it was chartered as a city of the first class. The first railway outlet, the Union Pacific, reached Eugene, now North Topeka, in 1865. The construction of the Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe was begun here in 1868, and its construction shops, of extreme importance to the city, were built here in 1878. In 1880, just after the great negro immigration to Kansas, the coloured population was 31% of the total. See F. W. Giles, Thirty Years in Topeka (Topeka, 1886). TOPELIUS, ZAKRIS [ZACH ARIAS] (1818-1898), Finnish author, was born at Kuddnas, near Nykarleby, on the I4th of January 1818. He was the son of a doctor of the same name, who was distinguished as the earliest collector of Finnish folk-songs. Topelius became a student at Hel- singfors in 1833, was made professor in 1863 and received in succession all the academic distinctions open to him. Quite early in his career he began to distinguish himself as a lyric poet, with the three successive volumes of his Heather Blossoms (1845-1854). The earliest of his historical romances was The Duchess of Finland, published in 1850. He was also editor-in-chief of the Helsingfors Gazette from 1841 to 1860. In 1878 Topelius was allowed to withdraw from his professional duties, but this did not sever his connexion with the university; it gave him, however, more leisure for his abundant and various literary enterprises. Of all the multi- farious writings of Topelius, in prose and verse, that which has enjoyed the greatest popularity is his Tales of a Barber-Surgeon, episodes of historical fiction from the days of Gustavus II. Adolphus to those of Gustavus III., treated in the manner of Sir Walter Scott; the five volumes of this work appeared at intervals between 1853 and 1867. Topelius attempted the drama also, with most success in his tragedy of Regina von Emmeritz (1854). Topelius aimed, with eminent but perhaps pathetic success, at the cultivation of a strong passion of patriotism in Finland. He died on the I3th of March 1898 at Helsingfors. Topelius was an exceptionally happy writer for children, his best-known book being Lasning for barn. His abundant poetry is graceful and patriotic, but does not offer any features of great originality. (E. G.) TOPETE, JUAN BAUPTISTA (1821-1885), Spanish naval commander and politician, was born in Mexico on the 24th of May 1821. His father and grandfather were also Spanish admirals. He entered the navy at the age of seventeen, cut out a Carlist vessel in 1839, became a midshipman at twenty-two, obtained the cross of naval merit for saving the life of a sailor in 1841 and became a lieutenant in 1845. He served on the West Indian station for three years, and was engaged in repressing the slave trade before he was promoted frigate captain in 1857. He was chief of staff to the fleet during the Morocco War, 1859, after which he got the crosses of San Fernando and San Hermenegildo. Having been appointed chief of the Carrara arsenal at Cadiz, he was elected deputy and joined the Union Liberal of O'Donnell and Serrano. He was sent out to the Pacific in command of the frigate " Blanca," and was present at the bombardment of Valparaiso and Callao, where he was badly wounded, and in other engagements of the war between Chile and Peru. On his return to Spain, Topete was made port captain at Cadiz, which enabled him to take the lead of the conspiracy in the fleet against the Bourbon monarchy. He sent the steamer " Buenaventura " to the Canary Isle for Serrano and the other exiles; and when Prim and Sagasta arrived from Gibraltar, the whole fleet under the influence of Topete took such an attitude that the people, garrison and authorities of Cadiz followed suit. Topete took part in all the acts of the revolutionary government, accepted the post of marine minister, was elected a member of the Cortes of 1869, supported the pretensions of Montpensier, opposed the election of Amadeus, sat in several cabinets of that king's reign, was prosecuted by the federal republic of 1873 and again took charge of the marine under Serrano in 1874. After the Restora- tion Topete for some years held aloof, but finally accepted the presidency of a naval board in 1877, and sat in the Senate as a life peer until his death on the 2gth of October 1885 at Madrid. TOPFFER, RODOLPHE (1799-1846), the inventor of pedes- trian journeys in Switzerland by schoolboys, was born at Geneva on the 3ist of January 1799. His grandfather, a tailor, came about 1 760 from Schweinfurt (Bavaria) to settle in Geneva, while his father, Adam, was an artist. Rodolphe's literary education was rather desultory, as he intended to be an artist, like his father. But in 1819 his weak eyesight put an end to that intention, so he studied in Paris, intending to devote himself to the profession of schoolmaster. After passing some time in a private school in Geneva (1822-1824), he founded (1824) one of his own, after his marriage. It was in 1823 that he made his first foot journey in the Alps with his pupils, though this became his regular practice only from 1832 onwards. These Voyages en zigzag were described annually (1832-1843) in a series of lithographed volumes, with sketches by the author — the first printed edition appeared at Paris in 1844, and a second series (Nouveaux voyages en zig- zag) also at Paris in 1854. Both series have since passed through many editions. In 1832 he was named professor of belles-lettres at the university of Geneva, and held that chair till his death, on the 8th of June 1846. As early as 1830 he published an article in the Bibliotheque universelle of Geneva. It was followed by a number of tales, commencing with the Bibliotheque de man oncle (1832), many of which were later collected (1841) into the well- known volume which bears the title of Nowvelles genevoises. He took some part (on the Conservative side) in local politics, and was (1841-1843) editor of the Courrier de Geneve. Among 50 his other works are an edition of Demosthenes (1824), and a volume of artistic studies, the Reflexions el menus propos d'un peinire genevois (1848). Lives by A. Blondel and the abb<5 Relave (both published at Paris, 1886), and shorter notices in E. Rambert's iLcrivains nationaux (Geneva, 1874) ; and E. Javelle's Souvenirs d'un alpinists (Lausanne, 1886; Eng. trans., 1899, under the title of Alpine Memories), and several chapters in Ste Beuve's Causeries du lundi, Derniers portraits litteraires and Portraits contemporains. (W. A. B. C.) TOPHET, or TOPHETH ( nynn), the name given in 2 Kings xxiii. 10; Jer. vii. 31, to a spot in the valley of Ben Hinnom near Jerusalem where the Hebrews in the time of Ahab and Manasseh offered children to Molech and other heathen gods. Josiah " denied" it as part of his reforming activity, and it became a place for the bestowal and destruction of refuse, and a synonym for Gehenna (Isa. xxx. 33 ; Jer. vii. 32). The uncertain etymology of the word is discussed in the Ency. Bib., s.v. " Molech," § 3, "Topheth." TOPIARY, a term in gardening or horticulture for the cutting and trimming of shrubs, such as cypress, box or yew, into regular and ornamental shapes. It is usually applied to the cutting of trees into urns, vases, birds and other fantastic shapes, which were common at the end of the iyth century and through the 1 8th, but it also embraces the more restrained art necessary for the laying out of a formal garden. Yew and holly trees cut into fantastic objects may still be seen in old-fashioned cottage or farmhouse gardens in England. The Lat. topiarius meant an ornamental or landscape gardener, and was formed from topia (Gr. roxos, place), a term specially employed for a formal kind of landscape painting used as a mural decoration in Roman houses. TOPLADY, AUGUSTUS MONTAGUE (1740-1778), Anglican divine, was born at Farnham, Surrey, and educated at West- minster and Trinity College, Dublin. Although originally a follower of Wesley, he in 17 58 adopted extreme Calvinist opinions. He was ordr.ined in 1762 and became vicar of Harpford with Fenn-Ottery, Devonshire, in 1766. In 1768 he exchanged to the living of Broadhembury, Devonshire. He is chiefly known as a writer of hymns and poems, including " Rock of Ages," and the collections entitled Poems on Sacred Subjects (Dublin, 1759) and Psalms and Hymns for Public and Private Worship (London, 1776). His best prose work is the Historic Proof of the Doctrinal Calvinism of the Church of England (London, 1774). Some comments by Wesley upon Toplady's presentation of Calvinism led to a controversy which was carried on with much bitter- ness on both sides. Toplady wrote a venomous Letter to Mr Wesley (1770), and Wesley repeated his comments in The Consequence Proved (1771), whereupon Toplady replied with increased acridity in More Work for Mr Wesley (1772). From 1775 to 1778, having obtained leave of non-residence at Broadhembury, he lived in London, and ministered at a Calvinist church in Orange Street. TOPOGRAPHY (Gr. TOTOJ, place, yp^fiv, to write), a description of a town, district or locality, giving details of its geographical and architectural features. The term is also applied in anatomy to the mapping out of the surface of the human body, either according to a division based on the organs or parts lying below certain regions, or on a superficial plotting out of the body by anatomical boundaries and landmarks. TORAN, the name in Hindustani (Skr. torana, from tor, pass) of a sacred or honorific gateway in Buddhist architecture. Its typical form is a projecting cross-piece resting on two uprights or posts. It is made of wood or stone, and the cross-piece is generally of three bars placed one on the top of the other; both cross-piece and posts are usually sculptured. 10RBERNITE (or cupro-uranite), a mineral which is one of the " uranium micas "; a hydrous uranium and copper phosphate, Cu(UO2)2(PO4)2+i2H2O. Crystals are tetragonal and have the form of square plates, which are often very thin. There is a perfect micaceous cleavage parallel to the basal plane, and on this face the lustre is pearly. The bright grass-green colour is a characteristic feature of the mineral. The hardness is z\ and the specific gravity 3-5. The radio-activity of the mineral TOPHET— TORDENSKJOLD is greater than that of some specimens of pitchblende. It was first observed in 1772 at Johanngeorgenstadt in Saxony, but the best examples are from Gunnislake near Calstock and Redruth in Cornwall. The name torbenite is after Torbern Bergman: chalcolite is a synonym. (L. J. S.) TORCELLO, an island of Venetia, Italy, in the lagoons about 6 m. to the N.W. of Venice, belonging to the commune of Burano. It was a flourishing city in the early middle ages, but now has only a few houses and two interesting churches. The former cathedral of S. Maria was founded in the 7th century. The present building, a basilica with columns, dates from 864; the nave was restored in 1008, in which year the now ruined octagonal baptistery was built. It contains large mosaics of the i2th century, strongly under Byzantine influence; those on the west wall represent the Resurrection and Last Judgment. The seats for the priests are arranged round the semicircular apse, rising in steps with the bishop's throne in the centre — an arrange- ment unique in Italy. Close by is S. Fosca, a church of the i2th century, octagonal outside, with colonnades on five sides and a rectangular interior intended for a dome which was never executed, beyond which is a three-apsed choir. In the local museum are four Mycenaean vases, one found in the island and another on the adjacent island of Mazzorbo, proving direct intercourse with the Aegean Sea in prehistoric times. SeeR. M. Dawkins, in Journal of Hellenic Studies (\<)Q$ , xxiv. 125. TORCH (O. Fr. torche, from Med. Lat. lorlia, derived from tortus, twisted, torquere, to twist), a light or illuminant that can be carried in the hand, made of twisted tow, hemp or other inflammable substance. Torches or " links " were, till the general introduction of street lighting, necessary adjuncts for passengers on foot or in carriages in towns at night, and many of the older houses in London and elsewhere still retain the iron stands outside their doors, in which the torches might be placed. TORCHERE, a candelabrum mounted upon a tall stand of wood or metal, usually with two or three lights. When it was first introduced in France towards the end of the I7th century the torchere mounted one candle only, and when the number was doubled or tripled the improvement was regarded almost as a revolution in the lighting of large rooms. TORDENSKJOLD, PEDER (1691-1720), eminent Danish naval hero, the tenth child of alderman Jan Wessel of Bergen, in Norway, was born at Trondhjem on the 28th of October 1691. Wessel was a wild unruly lad who gave his pious parents much trouble. Finally he ran away from them by hiding in a ship bound for Copenhagen, where the king's chaplain Dr Peder Jes- persen took pity on the friendless lad, gratified his love for the sea by sending him on a voyage to the West Indies, and finally procured him a vacant cadetship. After further voyages, this time to the East Indies, Wessel was, on the 7th of July 1711, appointed 2nd lieutenant in the royal marine and shortly afterwards became the captain of a little 4-gun sloop " Ormen" (The Serpent), in which he cruised about the Swedish coast and picked up much useful information about the enemy. In June 1712 he was promoted to a 2o-gun frigate, against the advice of the Danish admiralty, which pronounced him to be too flighty and unstable for such a command. His dis- criminating patron was the Norwegian admiral Lovendal, who was the first to recognize the young man's ability as a naval officer. At this period Wessel was already renowned for two things: the audacity with which he attacked any Swedish vessels he came across regardless of odds, and his unique seaman- ship, which always enabled him to escape capture. The Great Northern War had now entered upon its later stage, when Sweden, beset on every side by foes, employed her fleet principally to transport troops and stores to her distressed German provinces. The audacity of Wessel impeded her at every point. He was continually snapping up transports, dashing into the fjords where her vessels lay concealed, and holding up her detached frigates. In July 1714 he encountered a frigate which had been equipped in England for the Swedes and was on its way to Gothenburg under the command of an English captain. Wessel instantly TOREADOR— TORENO attacked her but in the English captain he met his match. The combat lasted all day, was interrupted by nightfall, and renewed again indecisively the following morning. Wessel's free and easy ways procured him many enemies in the Danish navy. He was accused of unnecessarily endangering his majesty's war-ships in the affairs with the frigate and he was brought before a court-martial. But the spirit with which he defended himself and the contempt he poured on his less courageous comrades took the fancy of King Frederick IV., who cancelled the proceedings and raised Wessel to the rank of captain. When in the course of 1715 the return of Charles XII. from Turkey to Stralsund put a new life into the jaded and dispirited Swedish forces, Wessel distinguished himself in numerous engagements off the Pomeranian coast and did the enemy infinite damage by cutting out their frigates and destroy- ing their transports. On returning to Denmark in the beginning of 1716 he was ennobled under the title of " Tordenskjold " (Thundershield). When in the course of 1716 Charles XII. invaded Norway and sat down before the fortress of Fredrik- shald, Tordenskjold compelled him to raise the siege and retire to Sweden by pouncing upon the Swedish transport fleet laden with ammunition and other military stores which rode at anchor in the narrow and dangerous strait of Dynekil, utterly destroying the Swedish fleet with little damage to him- self. For this, his greatest exploit, he was promoted to the rank of commander, but at the same time incurred the enmity of his superior officer Admiral Gabel, whom he had omitted to take into his confidence on the occasion. Tordenskjold 's first important command was the squadron with which he was entrusted in the beginning of 1717 for the purpose of destroying the Swedish Gothenburg squadron which interrupted the com- munications between Denmark and Norway. Owing to the disloyalty of certain of his officers who resented serving under the young adventurer, Tordenskjold failed to do all that was expected of him. His enemies were not slow to take advantage of his partial failure. The old charge of criminal recklessness was revived against him at a second court-martial before which he was summoned in 1718; but his old patron Admiral U. C. Gyldenlove again intervened energetically in his behalf and the charge was quashed. In December 1718 Tordenskjold brought to Frederick IV. the welcome news of the death of Charles XII. and was made a rear-admiral for his pains. Tor- denskjold's last feat of arms was his capture of the Swedish fortress of Marstrand, when he partially destroyed and partially captured the Gothenburg squadron which had so long eluded him. He was rewarded with the rank of vice-admiral. Tordenskjold did not long survive the termination of the war. On the 2oth of November 1720 he was killed in a duel with a Livonian colonel, Jakob Axel Stael von Holstein. Although, Dynekil excepted, Tordenskjold;s victories were of far less importance than Sehested's at Stralsund and Gyldenlove's at Rugen, he is certainly, after Charles XII., the most heroic figure of the Great Northern War. His courage was fully equal to the courage of " The Lion of the North," but he lacked that absolute self- command which gives to the bravery of Charles XII. its peculiar, almost superhuman, character. See Carstensen and Lutken, Tordenskjold (Copenhagen, 1887). (R. N. B.) TOREADOR, a Spanish word derived from torear, to engage in a bull-fight, two, a bull, Latin taurus, for one of the principal performers in the national sport of bull-fighting (q.v.). TORELL, OTTO MARTIN (1828-1900), Swedish geologist, was born in Varberg on the sth of June 1828. He was edu- cated at Lund for the medical profession, but became interested in zoological and geological studies, and being of independent means he devoted himself to science. He gave his attention first especially to the invertebrate fauna and the physical changes of pleistocene and recent times. He studied the glacial phenomena of Switzerland, Spitzbergen and Green- land, making two Arctic expeditions in company with A. E. Nordenskiold. In 1866 he became professor of zoology and geology in the University at Lund, and in 1871 he was appointed chief of the Swedish Geological Survey. In the latter capacity he laboured until 1897. His published contributions, though of much interest and importance, were not large, but his influence in promoting a knowledge of geology in Sweden was of great service. His Arctic experiences enabled him to interpret the method of origin of the drift deposits in northern Europe, and to show that they were largely of glacial or fluvio-glacial origin. In the English drifts he recognized many boulders of Scandinavian origin. He died on the nth of September 1900. His publications include: Bidrag till Spitzbergens molluskfauna ('859); and memoirs to accompany several sheets of the Geological Survey map of Sweden. Obituary with portrait, in Geol. Mag (May 1902), reproduced in abridged form from memoir by L. Holmstrom, in Geologiska forenin- gen i Stockholm's forhandlingar, xxiii. TORENO, JOS6 MARIA QUIEPO DE LLANO RUIZ DE SARAVIA, COUNT OF (1786-1843), Spanish politician and his- torian, was born at Oviedo on the 25th of November 1786. His family was wealthy and belonged to the most ancient nobility of Asturias. His mother, Dominga Ruiz de Saravia, had property in the province of Cuenca. The son received a better education in classics, mathematics and modern languages than was usual at that time. The young viscount of Matarrosa, the title he bore in his father's lifetime, was introduced to the writings of Voltaire and Rousseau by the abbot of the Benedictine house of Monserrat in Madrid. He was present at Madrid when the city rose against Murat on the 2nd of May 1808, and took part in the struggle which was the beginning of the Peninsular War. From Madrid he escaped to Asturias, and on the 3oth of May he embarked in a Jersey privateer at Gijon, with other delegates, in order to ask for the help of England against the French. The deputation was enthusiastically received in London. By the 3Oth of December he was back in Asturias, his father having died in the interval. During the Peninsular War he saw some service in the first occupation of Asturias by the French, but he was mainly occu- pied by his duties as a member of the Cortes. In 1809 he was at Seville, where one of his uncles was a member of the central Junta. In the following year he was a leader of the party which compelled the Regency to summon the Cortes — to which he was elected by Asturias early in 1811 though he wanted some months of the legal age of twenty-five. His election was opposed by some of his own relatives who did not share his advanced opinions, but it was ratified by the Cortes. Toreno was conspicuous among the well-meaning men who framed the constitution of 1812, which was made as if it was meant for some imaginary republic and not for Catholic and monarchical Spain. When Ferdinand VII. returned from prison in France in 1814 Toreno foresaw a reaction, and put himself out of reach of the king. He was the more an object of suspicion because his brother- in-law, Porlier, perished in a wild attempt to support the con- stitution by force. Toreno remained in exile till the outbreak of the revolution of 1820. Between that year and 1823 he was in Spain serving in the restored Cortes, and experience had abated his radical ardour. When the French intervened in 1823 Toreno had again to go into exile, and remained abroad till the king published the amnesty of the isth of October 1832. He returned home in July 1833, but remained on his estates till the king's death on the 29th of September. As hereditary standard bearer of Asturias (Alferez Mayor) it fell to him to proclaim the young queen, Isabella II. In 1834 his now moderate opinions pointed him out to the queen regent, Maria Christina, as a useful man for office. In June 1834 he was minister of finance, and became prime minister on the 7th of June. His tenure of the premiership lasted only till the I4th of September of the same year, when the regent's attempt to retain a practically despotic government under a thin constitutional veil broke down. The greater part of the remainder of his life was spent in voluntary exile, and he died in Paris on the 1 6th of September 1843. As a politician he felt the need for a revision of the worn out despotism which ruled till 1808, but he was destitute of any real political capacity. Toreno is chiefly remembered as the author of the History of the Rising, War TORENO— TORONTO and Revolution of Spain, which he began between 1823 and 1832 and published in 1836-1838 in Paris. As a work of military criticism it is not of high value, and Toreno was prejudiced in favour of his colleagues of the Cortes, whose errors and ex- cesses he shared in and excused. The book is, however, written in excellent Castilian, and was compiled with industry. It is worth consulting as an illustration of the time in which the author lived, as a patriotic Spanish view of the war, and for the pro- minence it gives to the political side of the Peninsular War, which he justly treated as a revolution. A biography by Don Antonio de Cueto is prefixed to the reprint of the Levantamiento guerra y revolution de Espana, in vol. Ixiy. of the Biblioleca de auiores espanoles of Rivadeneyra (Madrid 1846-1880). TORENO, QUEIPO DE LLANO Y GAYOSO DE, COUNT (1840-1890), Spanish politician, son of the preceding, was born in Madrid in 1840. He was educated at the Madrid Institute and University, entered parliament in 1864 as 'a Moderado, and sat in all the Cortes of Queen Isabella's reign as a deputy for his ancestral province, Asturias. Loyal to the Bourbons all through the revolution, he nevertheless became a deputy in the Cortes of 1871-1873, and founded an Alphonsist paper, El Tiempo, in 1873. When the Restoration took place, its first cabinet made Count de Toreno mayor of the capital, and in 1875 minister of public works, in which capacity he im- proved the public libraries, museums, academies and archives, and caused many important works to be published, includ- ing the Cartas de Indias. In 1879 he became minister for foreign affairs, in 1880 president of the House of Deputies, in 1884 again governor of Madrid, and in 1885 again president of the House of Deputies. During the reign of Alphonso XII. and the first years of the regency of Queen Christina Count de Toreno was one of the most prominent Conservative leaders, and was often consulted by the Crown. He died on the 3ist of January 1890. He was a patron of the turf, and established a race-course in Madrid, where the first races took place in the reign of Alphonso XII. TORGAU, a town of Germany, in the Prussian province of Saxony, situated on the left bank of the Elbe, 30 m. N.E. of Leipzig and 26 m. S.E. of Wittenberg by rail. Pop. (1905), 12,299. Its most conspicuous building is the Schloss Hartenfels, on an island in the Elbe, which was built, or at least was finished, by the elector of Saxony, John Frederick the Magnanimous. This castle, which is now used as a barracks, is one of the largest Renaissance buildings in Germany. It was for some time the residence of the electors of Saxony and contains a chapel con- secrated by Martin Luther. The town hall, a 16th-century building, houses a collection of Saxon antiquities. Torgau • has two Evangelical churches and a Roman Catholic church. One of the former, the Stadt Kirche, contains paintings by Lucas Cranach and the tomb of Catherine von Bora, the wife of Luther. The chief industries of the town are the manufacture of gloves, carriages, agricultural machinery, beer and bricks; there is a trade in grain both on the Elbe and by rail. The fortifications, begun in 1807 by order of Napoleon, were dis- mantled in 1889-1891. In the vicinity is the royal stud farm of Graditz. Torgau is said to have existed as the capital of a distinct principality in the time of the German king Henry I., but early in the I4th century it was in the possession of the margraves of Meissen and later of the electors of Saxony, who frequently resided here. The town came into prominence at the time of the Reformation. In 1526 John, elector of Saxony, Philip, landgrave of Hesse, and other Protestant princes formed a league against the Roman Catholics, and the Torgau articles, drawn up here by Luther and his friends in 1530, were the basis of the confession of Augsburg. Torgau is particularly celebrated as the scene of a battle fought on the 3rd of November 1760, when Frederick the Great defeated the Austrians (see SEVEN YEARS' WAR). In January 1814 Torgau was taken by the Germans after a siege of three months and it was formally ceded to Prussia in 1815. See Grulich and Btirger, Denkwurdigkeiten der altsachsischen Resident Torgau aus der Zeit der Reformation (Torgau, 1855) ; Knabe, Geschichte der Stadt Torgau bis zur Reformation (Torgau, 1880); and the publications of the Altertumverein zu Torgau (Torgau 1884 sqq.). TORNADO (Span., tornado, a turning about, cf. " turn "), a local whirlwind of extreme violence, usually formed within a thunderstorm. In appearance it consists of a funnel-shaped cloud, depending from the mass of storm-cloud above, and when fully developed tapering downwards to the earth. Besides its whirling motion, a tornado has an advancing movement of from 20 to 40 m. an hour — and along its own narrow path it carries destruction. Its duration is usually from half an hour to an hour. Tornadoes are most common in America, espe- cially in the Mississippi Valley and the Southern states ; in Europe and elsewhere they are comparatively rare. Owing to their association with thunderstorms they generally occur in warm weather. A tornado is the result of a condition of local in- stability in the atmosphere, originating high above the earth. A current of air is induced to ascend with a rapid spiral motion round a central core of low pressure. The moisture in the ascending air is condensed by cooling both as it ascends and as it expands into the low-pressure core. The cloud-funnel appears to grow downwards because the moisture in the air is condensed more rapidly than the air itself, following a spiral course, ascends. TORO, a town of Spain, in the province of Zamora, on the right bank of the river Duero (Douro), and on the Zamora- Medina del Campo railway. Pop. (1900), 8379. Toro is an ancient fortified town, with picturesque narrow streets, among which are many medieval churches, convents and palaces, besides modern schools and public buildings. A fine bridge of twenty-two arches spans the river. The cathedral church is Romanesque; it dates from the I2th century but has been partially restored. The palace of the marquesses of Santa Cruz was the meeting place of the Cortes of 1371, 1442 and 1505, which made Toro and its code of laws celebrated. Toro is first mentioned in documents of the loth century. It played an important part in the development of the kingdoms of Leon and Castile and in the reconquest of Spain from the Moors. TORONTO, the capital of the province of Ontario, and the second largest city in the Dominion of Canada, situated on the northern shore of Lake Ontario, almost due north from the mouth of the Niagara river. It lies on a plateau gradually ascending from the lake shore to an altitude of 220 ft., and covers an area of nearly 20 sq. m. The river Don flows through the eastern part of the city, and the river Humber forms its western limit. The fine bay in front of the city, affording a safe and commodious harbour, is formed by an island stretching along the south of it. The city is well laid out for the most part, the streets crossing each other at right angles; Yonge Street, the chief artery, running north from the bay, was constructed as a military road in 1796, and extends under the same name for upwards of 30 m. to Lake Simcoe. It constitutes the dividing line of the city, the cross streets being called east or west according to the side of it they are on. Toronto is the seat of government for the province, and contains the parliament buildings, the lieutenant-governor's residence, the courts of law and the educational departmental buildings. The parliament buildings are situated in Queen's Park, almost in the centre of [the city, and are an imposing structure of red sandstone in the neo-Greek style built at great cost. They are shortly to be enlarged, as the needs of the province have outgrown them. A little distance to the west stand the university buildings, the central one being a splendid piece of architecture in the Norman style. Stretching in a semi- circle round the broad campus are the library, the medical building, the biology building and museum, the school of practical science, the geology and chemistry buildings and the convoca- tion hall, their architecture varying very greatly, beauty having been sacrificed to more practical considerations; the magnetic observatory is also in the grounds, but is overshadowed by some of the more recent erections. It is one of the meteorological TORPEDO 53 stations established by the British government on the recom- mendation of the Royal Society in 1840 and is now maintained by the Dominion government. The university of Toronto, for the support of which the province is responsible, includes faculties of arts, science and medicine, in the teaching of which it is strictly secular. But near at hand and in full affiliation with the university are Victoria College (Methodist), Wycliffe College (Anglican), Knox College (Presbyterian) and St Michael's College (Roman Catholic), wherein courses in divinity are given and degrees conferred. Victoria College, likewise, provides a course in arts, but none in science. Trinity College (Anglican), though some distance away, is also affiliated with the univer- sity, and her students enjoy its full advantages. Besides the university, Toronto is remarkably rich in educational institu- tions. Upper Canada College, founded in 1829, in many respects resembles one of the English public schools. It has over 300 students. St Andrew's College, also for boys, is a more recent establishment, and has about the same number of pupils. There are three large collegiate institutes, having some 300 to 600 pupils each, and in addition a number of schools for girls, such as Havergal College and Westminster College. Osgoode Hall, a stately structure in the heart of the city, houses the higher courts of law and appeal, and also a flourishing law school. The city hall and court-house is one of the finest civic build- ings in North America. It is in the Romanesque style, and accommodates all the civic offices, the board of education, the police and county courts, &c. Many of the churches are worthy examples of good architecture. Toronto is essentially a residential city. The houses of the better class stand separate, not in long rows, and have about them ample lawns and abundant trees. It is consequently a widespread city, the length from east to west approximating ten miles. An electric railway system provides means of com- munication. There are many parks, ranging in size from Carlton Park of one acre to High Park (375 acres) and Island Park (389), the latter being across the harbour and constitut- ing the favourite resort of the people during the summer. In Exhibition Park there is held annually an industrial and agri- cultural exhibition that has grown to great magnitude. It lasts a fortnight in late summer. It is a municipal enterprise and the profits belong to the city. The population in 1907, as shown by the police census, exceeded 300,000. The government of the city is vested in a council consisting of the mayor and four controllers elected annually and eighteen aldermen (three from each of the six wards into which the city is divided). The council as a whole is the legislative body, while the board of control is the executive body, and as such is responsible for the supervision of all matters of finance, the appointment of officials, the carrying on of public works, and the general administration of the affairs of the city, except the departments of education and of police, the first being under the control of the board of education, elected annually by the citizens, and the latter under the board of police commissioners, consisting of the mayor, the county judge and the police magistrate. Toronto is one of the chief manufacturing centres of the dominion; agricultural machinery, automobiles, bicycles, cotton goods, engines, furniture, foundry products, flour, smoked meats, tobacco, jewelry, &c., are flourishing industries, and the list is constantly extending. The situation of the city is favourable to commerce, and the largest vessels on the lakes can use its harbour. It is the outlet of a rich and extensive agricultural district, and throughout the season of navigation lines of steamers ply between Toronto and the other lake ports on both the Canadian and American sides, the route of some of them extending from Montreal to Port Arthur on Lake Superior. Railway communication is complete, three great trunk lines making the city a terminal point, viz. the Grand Trunk, the Canadian Pacific and the Canadian Northern. As a financial centre Toronto has made remarkable advance. The transactions on the stock exchange rival those of Montreal. The Bank of Commerce has its headquarters here, as have also the Bank of Nova Scotia, the Bank of Toronto, the Standard Traders, Imperial, Sovereign, Dominion, Crown, United Empire, Sterling and other banks. The name of the city is of Indian origin, meaning "a place of meeting," the site in the days before the coming of the white man being an established rendezvous among the neighbouring Indian tribes. It first appears in history in 1749 as a centre of trade when the French built a small fort and started a trading establishment called Fort Rouille. Before long, however, British traders came up from the south and entered into active rivalry with the French, and in 1793 the fort was burned by the latter to prevent its occupation by their foes. A year later Governor Simcoe transferred the seat of government of the new province of Upper Canada from the town of Newark at the mouth of the Niagara River to Toronto, giving the new capital the Mame of York, in honour of the second son of George III. Under its new name it made slow progress as the surrounding country was cleared and settled. The entrance to the harbour was guarded by two blockhouses; provision was made for barracks and garrison stores; buildings were erected for the legislature; and there the members of parliament, summoned by royal proclamation to "meet us in our provincial parliament in our town of York," assembled on the ist of June 1797. Sixteen years later the population numbered only 456. The town was twice sacked in the war of 1812. General Dearborn captured it at the head of a force of upwards of 2000. On their advance to the outworks of the garrison the magazine of the fort exploded, whether by accident or design, killing many of the invaders. The halls of legislature and other buildings were burnt and the town pillaged. On the restoration of peace the work of creating a capital for Upper Canada had wellnigh to begin anew. The organization of Upper Canada College in 1830, with a staff of teachers nearly all graduates of Cambridge, gave a great impetus to the city and province. In 1834 the population of York numbered fully 10,000; and an act of the provincial legislature conferred on it a charter of incorporation, with a mayor, aldermen and councilmen. Under this charter it was constituted a city with the name of Toronto. Since that time the progress of the city has been rapid and substantial, the population doubling every twenty years. In 1885 the total assessment was $69,000,000; in 1895 $146,000,000 and in 1906 $167,411,000, the rate of taxation being i8£ mills. TORPEDO. In 1805 Robert Fulton demonstrated a new method of destroying ships by exploding a large charge of gunpowder against the hull under water. No doubt then remained as to the effectiveness of this form of attack when successfully applied; it was the difficulty of getting the torpedo, as it was called, to the required position which for many years retarded its progress as a practical weapon of naval warfare. Attempts were first made to bring the explosive in contact with the vessel by allowing it to drift down to her by the action of tide or current, and afterwards to fix it against her from some form of diving boat, but successive failures led to its restriction for a considerable period to the submarine mine (g.v.) in which the explosive is stationary and takes effect only when the ship itself moves over or strikes the charge. Used in this way, it is an excellent deterrent to hostile warships forcing a harbour. Spar or Outrigger Torpedo. — The limitations attached to the employment of submarine mines, except for coast defence, revived the idea of taking the torpedo to the ship instead of waiting for the latter to gain some exact point which she might very possibly avoid. This first took practical shape in the spar or outrigger torpedo. This consisted of a charge of explosive, at the end of a long pole projecting from the bow of a boat, the pole being run out and immersed on arriving near the object. Directly the charge came in contact with the hull of the ship it was exploded by an electric battery in the boat. If the boat was not discovered and disabled while approaching, the chances were favourable to success and escape afterwards. Against a vigilant enemy it was doubtless a forlorn hope, but to brave men the venture offered considerable attractions. Frequent use of this spar or outrigger torpedo was made during TORPEDO the American Civil War. A notable instance was the destruction of the Confederate ironclad " Albemarle " at the end of October 1864. On this mission Lieut. Gushing took a steam launch equipped with an outrigger torpedo up the Roanoke River, in which lay the " Albemarle." On arriving near the ship Gushing found her surrounded by logs, but pushing his boat over them, he immersed the spar and exploded his charge in contact with the " Albemarle " under a heavy fire. Ship and launch sank together, but the gallant officer jumped overboard, swam away and escaped. Submerged boats were also used for similar service, but usually went to the bottom with their crews. During the war between France and China in 1884 the " Yang Woo " was attacked and destroyed by an outrigger torpedo. Locomotive Torpedoes. — Though the spar torpedo had scored some successes, it was mainly because the means of defence against it at that time were inefficient. The ship trusted solely to her heavy gun and rifle fire to repel the attack. The noise, smoke, and difficulty of hitting a small object at night with a piece that could probably be discharged but once before the boat arrived, while rifle bullets would not stop its advance, favoured the attack. When a number of small guns and electric lights were added to a ship's equipment, success with an outrigger torpedo became nearly, if not entirely, impossible. Attention was then turned in the direction of giving motion to the torpedo and steering it to the required point by electric wires worked from the shore or from another vessel; or, dispensing with any such connection, of devising a torpedo which would travel under water in a given direction by means of self-contained motive power and machinery. Of the former type are the Lay, Sims- Edison and Brennan torpedoes. The first two — electrically steered by a wire which trails behind the torpedo — have in- sufficient speed to be of practical value, and are no longer used. The Brennan torpedo, carrying a charge of explosive, travels under water and is propelled by unwinding two drums or reels of fine steel wire within the torpedo. The rotation of these reels is communicated to the propellers, causing the torpedo to advance. The ends of the wires are connected to an engine on shore to give rapid unwinding and increased speed to the torpedo. It is steered by vary- ing the speed of unwinding the two wires. This tor- pedo was adopted by the British war office for harbour defence and the protection of narrow channels. Uncontrolled, Torpedoes. — The objection of naval officers to have any form of torpedo connected by wire to their ship during an action, impeding her free move- ment, liable to get entangled in her propellers and perhaps exploding where not desired — disadvantages which led them to discard the Harvey towing torpedo many years ago — has hitherto prevented any navy from adopting a controlled torpedo for its sea-going fleet. The last quarter of the igth century saw, however, great advances in the equipment of ships with locomotive torpedoes of the uncontrolled type. The Howell may be briefly described, as it has a special feature of some interest. Motive power is provided by causing a heavy steel fly-wheel inside the torpedo to revolve with great velocity. This is effected by a small special engine outside operating on the axle. When sufficiently spun up, the axle of the flywheel is connected with the propeller shafts and screws which drive the torpedo, so that on entering the water it is driven ahead and continues its course until the power stored up in the flywheel is exhausted. Now when a torpedo is discharged into the sea from a ship in motion, it has a tendency to deflect owing to the action of the passing water. The angle of deflexion will vary according to the speed of the ship, and is also affected by other causes, such as the position in the ship from which the torpedo is discharged, and its own angle with the line of keel. Hence arise inaccuracies of shooting; but these do not occur with this torpedo, for the motion of the flywheel, acting as a gyroscope — the principle of which applied to the Whitehead torpedo is described later — keeps this torpedo on a straight course. This advantage, combined with simplicity in construction, induced the American naval authorities at one time to contemplate equipping their fleet with this torpedo, for they had not, up to within a few years ago, adopted any loco- motive torpedo. A great improvement in the torpedo devised by Mr Whitehead led them, however, definitely to prefer the latter and to discontinue the further development of the Howell system. The Whitehead torpedo is a steel fish-shaped body which travels under water at a high rate of speed, being propelled by two screws driven by compressed air. It carries a large charge of explosive which is ignited on the torpedo striking any hard substance, such as the hull of a ship. The body is divided into three parts. The foremost portion or head contains the explo- sive— usually wet gun-cotton — with dry primer and mechanical igniting arrangement; the centre portion is the air chamber or reservoir, while the remaining part or tail carries the engines, rudders, and propellers besides the apparatus for controlling depth and direction. This portion also gives buoyancy to the torpedo. When the torpedo is projected from a ship or boat into the water a lever is thrown back, admitting air into the engines causing the propellers to revolve and drive the torpedo ahead. It is desirable that a certain depth under water should be main- tained. An explosion on the surface would be deprived of the greater part of its effect, for most of the gas generated would escape into the air. Immersed, the water above confines the liberated gas and compels it to exert all its energy against the bottom of the ship. It is also necessary to correct the tendency to rise that is due to the torpedo getting lighter as the air is used up, for compressed air has an appreciable weight. This is effected by an ingenious apparatus long maintained secret. The general principle is to utilize the pressures due to different depths of water to actuate horizontal rudders, so that the torpedo is automatically directed upwards or downwards as its tendency is to sink or rise. The efficiency of such a torpedo compared with all previous types was clearly manifest when it was brought before the maritime states by the inventor, Whitehead, and it was almost universally adopted. The principal defect was want of speed — which at first Sped — 23 Knots to 800 Mctni : U3 tis »e» Gun Co»c/i Speed — 30 Knots to 600 Yds. C/Mrye_ //5(t>so t^706 Lbs 14-INCH TORPEDO FIG. I. — Diagrams of 14- and i8-in. Torpedoes, did not exceed 10 knots an hour — but by the application of Brother- hood's 3-cylinder engine the speed was increased to 18 knots — a great advance. From that time continuous improvements have resulted in speeds of 30 knots and upwards for a short range being obtained. For some years a torpedo 14 ft. long and 14 in. in diameter was considered large enough, though it had a very limited effective range. For a longer range a larger weapon must be employed capable of carrying a greater supply of air. To obtain this, torpedoes of 18 in. diameter, involving increased length and weight, have for some time been constructed, and have taken the place of the smaller torpedo in the equipment of warships. This advance in dimensions has not only given a faster and steadier torpedo, but enabled such a heavy charge of gun-cotton to be carried that its explosion against any portion of a ship would inevit- ably either sink or disable her. The dimensions, shape, &c., of the 14- and i8-in. torpedoes are shown in fig. I. A limited range was still imposed by the uncertainty of its course under water. The speed of the ship from which it was discharged, the angle with her keel at which it entered the water, and the varying velocity of impulse, tended to error of flight, such error being magnified the farther the path of the torpedo was prolonged. Hence 8po yds. was formerly considered the limit of distance within which the torpedo should be discharged at sea against an object from a ship in motion. In these circumstances, though improvements in the manufacture of steel and engines allowed of torpedoes.of far longer range being TORPEDO 55 made (the fastest torpedo up to 1898 having a speed of 29 knots for 800 yds.), it was of no advantage to make them, as they could not be depended upon to run in a straight line from a stationary point for more than 800 yds., while from a ship in motion good practice could only be ensured at a reduced range. It was obvious, therefore, that to increase the effective range of the torpedo, these errors of direction must be overcome by some automatic steering arrangement. Several inventors turned their attention to the subject, nearly all of whom proposed to utilize the principle of the gyroscope for the purpose. The first which gave any satisfactory results was an apparatus devised by Ludwig Obry — an engineer in Austria — and tried by the Italian government about 1896. These trials demonstrated the feasibility of accurately and auto- matically steering a torpedo in a direct line by this means. Messrs Whitehead & Co., of Fiume, then acquired the invention, and after exhaustive experiments produced the apparatus which is now fitted to every torpedo made. It is based on the principle that a body revolving on a free axis tends to preserve its plane of rotation. A gyroscope with plane of rotation parallel to the vertical axis of the torpedo will have an angular motion if the torpedo is diverted from its original course. This angular motion is employed to actuate the steering mechanism by operating an air motor connected with the rudders, and keeping the torpedo in the line of discharge. The apparatus consists of a flywheel caused to rotate by a spring, the barrel on which the latter is wound having a segmental wheel which gears into a toothed pinion spindle of the flywheel. Owing to the diameter of the segment being much greater than the pinion, a rapid rotatory motion is imparted. The spring is wound up by a key from outside the torpedo, and kept in tension until the pro- jectile is discharged, when the spring is released by the air lever being thrown back, which admits air to the engine; the gyroscope is then freed and set in motion with its plane in the plane of the vertical axis of the torpedo as it was in the launching tube. Assuming now that the course of the torpedo is diverted by any cause, its axis will move or perform a certain angular motion with regard to the plane of the flywheel, which will have the same result as if we consider the conditions reversed, i.e. as if the plane of rotation of the flywheel were altered and that of the axis of the torpedo remained the same. The axis of the flywheel performs a relative angular motion which it imparts to a crank actuating a servo-motor worked by compressed air, and connected with the rudders _ of the torpedo, moving them in the opposite direction to that in which the torpedo was diverted from its original course. Thus all inaccuracies of flight due to errors of adjustment, mis- calculation of deflexion, or even damage to some part, are elimin- ated. As long as the gyroscope is in good order the torpedo is bound to run in the line it was pointing when the flywheel was started. It is placed in the after-body of the torpedo, as indicated in fig. 2. limited by the strength of the engines and other parts. Improve- ments in steel manufacture have permitted the use of much higher pressures of air and the construction of air-chambers able to with- stand the pressure of 2000 Ib to the sq. in. with the same weight of air-chamber. This has enabled increased range without reduction in speed to be attained, or conversely, increased speed at shorter ranges. By improvement in the engines which are now of the Brotherhood 4-cylinder central crank type further gains have been effected. Having reached the limit of pressure and endurance of air- chambers with present materials without undue increase of weight, the designer had to seek additional energy in another direction. Now the energy obtainable from a given weight of compressed air is dependent upon the volume of air available at the working pressure of the engines. At a constant pressure this volume of air is proportionate to its absolute temperature. If then the air be stored cold and highly heated before delivery to the engine the available energy from a given weight will be greatly increased. By this means we obtain the equivalent of a larger and heavier air-chamber without the increased weight such would involve. As originally used a quantity of hydrocarbon fuel was placed in the air-vessel. Upon discharging the torpedo this fuel was auto- matically ignited and the contents of the air-chamber were heated. Unless, however, the combustion could be regulated there were serious risks of abnormal pressures, of overheating and weakening the air-vessel. Devices have been applied to overcome this liability, and other methods devised to obtain the same result. By the use of heating and thereby increasing the volume of air in proportion to the rise of temperature the extra volume will allow of an increased speed for a given range or a greater range without increase of speed. The limit to the development of this system seems to be the temperature the materials will stand, but even at this early stage it has added several knots to the speed of this wonderful weapon. Torpedo Carriages and Discharge. — As no gun which is ineffi- ciently mounted can give good results, so the best torpedo is valueless without a good carriage or system of discharge. In the early days of the Whitehead, discredit came upon it because the importance of this was not sufficiently realized; and an erratic course under water was in nine cases out of ten due to a crude method of dis- charge. A delicate piece of mechanism was dropped into the water from a height of several feet, and naturally suffered internal derange- ment. Gun-ports were then used for the purpose, but now a special orifice is made, to which the torpedo carriage is fitted with a ball- and-socket joint — forming a water-tight aperture — so that this carriage or tube may be only 2 or 3 ft. above the water-line. The ball-and-socket joint enables it also to have a considerable angle of training. Originally the torpedo was pushed out by a rod acted upon by compressed air, in which case the carriage was a FIG. 2. — Arrangement The efficiency of the Whitehead torpedo has thus been enormously increased, and more accurate practice can now be made at 2000 yds. than was formerly possible at 800 yds. This adds con- siderably to the chances of torpedo-boats attacking ships, even in day-time, at sea or at anchor, and will render further protection necessary against this weapon. Against a ship in motion there is still, however, the calculation as to her speed and the distance she will travel before the torpedo reaches her. Should this be mis- calculated, an increased range for torpedoes will magnify the error. For instance, a 3O-knot torpedo will travel 1000 yds. in a minute. If aimed at a ship on the beam assumed to be steaming 15 knots an hour, to reach her when 1000 yds. distant the torpedo must be discharged at a point 500 yds. ahead of her. But if the ship is actually steaming 12 knots, she will have travelled only 400 yds. in the minute, and the torpedo will be 100 yds. in advance of her. If discharged at a range of 500 yds., such a miscalculation causes an error of only 50 yds. or 150 ft. But if the object is 300 it. long, and her centre was taken as the target, her bow would be just at the spot the torpedo would reach in thirty seconds. It would seem, therefore, that increased velocity of torpedo is necessary before the full advantages of the gyroscope can be realized. Now the range of the torpedo is entirely dependent upon the store of energy which can be carried; upon, therefore, the capacity of the air reservoir, the maximum pressure it can stand, and on the effici- ency of the propelling engines. The speed over a given range is also dependent upon these factors; the maximum speed being of Gyroscope in Torpedo. simple frame. The rod, pressing against the tail with some force, was apt to damage or disarrange the rudders, so the air-gun took the place of rod impulse. Here the torpedo fits closely in a tube or cylinder with an opening at the rear made air-tight when closed. At the desired moment compressed air is admitted to the rear part of the cylinder and blows the torpedo out. Gunpowder then superseded air for this operation; and now this has given place to a small charge of cordite, which does not leave any deposit on the inside of the cylinder. There is a double risk in the use of locomotive torpedoes from above water, (i) The charge may be exploded by hostile fire. Though mainly consisting of damp gun-cotton, which is not readily ignited, the dry primer and detonator may be struck, which would lead to a disastrous explosion. (2) The air- chamber is also a source of danger. As it contains air compressed to a high degree of tension, experiments have shown that if struck by a small shell it may burst with great violence; and as it offers a considerable mark, this is not an improbable event in an action. An instance of the danger of above-water torpedo tubes occurred in the Spanish-American War at the battle of Santiago. A shell entered the " Almirante Oquendo " and struck a 14-in. torpedo in the tube. The charge detonated, causing a fearful explosion and practically wrecking that part of the vessel. The develop- ment of moderate-sized quick-firing guns has increased this risk. Hence we find the use of above-water torpedo tubes now mainly confined to torpedo and other craft too small for submerged discharge. TORPEDO Submerged Discharge. — The risk attached to having loaded torpedoes above the water-line — independently of the fact that to get the best result they should start in the elejnent to which they belong — has given great impetus to the system of submerged Gun end Torpedo reedy to fire VERTICAL SECTION. and tube into the ship again, so that practically the whole operation is one motion. Fig. 3 will further explain this apparatus. A is the outer tube; B the inner tube; C the shield; D torpedo; E explosion chamber for cordite charge placed at K ; F pipe for gas to pass into outer tube ; G and Y doors of inner and outer tube ; J the valve which opens automatically when inner tube arrives at position shown in fig. 2 ; T and P appliance for running the tube in and out by hand when desired ; O arrangement for bringing whole apparatus back for repair, &c. ; M and N sluice- valve and handle; R, r1, r", r3, for draining tubes before torpedo is put in; X indicator showing position of inner tube. Torpedoes have been discharged from this apparatus with successful result from a ship steaming at I7i knots. The advantage of cordite over compressed air for impulse is that it requires no attention : when a charge PLAN V IEW FIG. 3. — Broadside Submerged l8-in. Torpedo Tube. discharge. From the earliest days of the weapon this has been employed to some extent. But it was principally in the direction of right-ahead fire, by having an orifice in the stem of the ship under water, to which a torpedo tube was connected. The tactical idea was thus to supplement attack with the ram, so that if the vessel endeavouring to ram saw that the object would evade this attack, she could project a torpedo ahead, which, travelling faster than the vessel, might as effectually accomplish the required service. The stem orifice had a water-tight cover, which was removed on the torpedo being placed in the tube and the inner door closed; then, sufficient impulse being imparted to eject the torpedo, and its machinery being set in motion at the same time, it darted forward towards the enemy. There is, however, some risk of the ship using a torpedo in this manner striking it before the missile has gathered the necessary impetus from its propellers to take it clear of the vessel. The system, moreover, has the disadvantage of weakening the ram, the construction of which should be of immense strength. There is the further liability of ramming with a torpedo in the bow tube, which would be as disastrous to friend as foe. This method of submerged discharge has therefore given place to ejecting the torpedo from the broadside. Considerable difficulty attached to getting the torpedo clear of the ship from this position without injury, especially when the vessel was proceeding at speed. The natural tendency of the passing water acting on the head of the torpedo as it emerged was to give a violent wrench and crush the rear end before that portion could clear the aperture. To prevent this the torpedo must be held rigid in the line of projection until the tail is clear of the ship. This is thus effected. Besides the tube with the aperture in side of the ship under water, fitted with sluice-valve, all broadside submerged discharge apparatus possess the following features: A shield is pushed out from the ship's side. In this shield there are grooves of some form. Guides on the torpedoes fit and run in these grooves. When discharged the torpedo is thus supported against the streams of passing water, and guided so that its axis continues in the line of projection until the tail is clear of the side, the shield being of such length that this occurs at the same time that the guides on the torpedo leave the grooves in the shield. An apparatus on this principle has been fitted to a number of ships of the British navy, and gives good results at high rates of speed. It has the defect that the shield must be run out previous to the torpedo being discharged, and brought back afterwards, thus involving three separate operations, each performed by compressed air. In the broadside submerged discharge, designed, constructed and supplied to many foreign navies by Messrs Armstrong of the Elswick works, the three operations are combined in one. There is an outer tube as before, but it contains an inner tube carrying the torpedo. Fized to this tube, and prolonging it, is the shield fitted with grooves. Both tubes have a door at the rear— made air- tight when closed — by which the torpedo is entered. A charge of cordite is used for ejection instead of compressed air, the gas from which entering the outer cylinder first forces the inner tube out, and then by means of a valve in the door of the inner tube passes in and blows put water and torpedo together, the shield supporting the latter until the tail is clear of the ship. By this time the cordite gas has expanded and cooled so as to relieve the pressure in rear- this causes the pressure of the water outside to push the shield is placed in the explosion chamber, and a torpedo is in the tube, all is in readiness for firing when desired, without further attention in the torpedo-room. The cordite is fired by electricity from the conning-tower; the officer, therefore, having ascertained that all is ready below, has only to press a button when the object is in the required position. Automatic indications are given in the conning- tower when the sluice-valve is opened and when all is in readiness for firing. This method of discharging torpedoes from the broadside under water eliminates the principal danger of the system, which required the shield to be put into position beforehand. It was then liable to be struck and distorted by passing wreckage without the fact being apparent to those in the ship. On the discharge of a torpedo its course might thus be arrested, or possibly the charge be pre- maturely exploded in dangerous proximity to its own ship. There was a risk of getting the shield out too soon, and thereby exposing it unduly to injury, or leaving the operation until too late. The tendency of naval equipment being towards complication, any readjustment which makes for simplicity cannot be otherwise than beneficial, and this feature is especially desirable in all matters connected with the use of torpedoes. The compartment containing the broadside submerged apparatus usually extends across the ship, so as to contain a tube for each side. Use in War. — This has been mainly confined to attacks upon squadrons and single ships by torpedo craft of various types. At the battle of Yalu, between the Chinese and Japanese fleets, torpedoes were discharged by the former, but none took effect. The Japanese trusted solely to gun-fire. After the defeat of the Chinese at sea, their remaining ships took refuge in the harbour of Wei-hai-Wei. Here they were blockaded by the Japanese fleet, which, having a number of torpedo-boats, made several determined attacks upon the ships inside. After one or two attempts, foiled by the obstructions placed by the Chinese to bar the passage, the Japanese boats succeeded in torpedoing several ships, and thus expedited the reduction of the place. In the war between Spain and the United States the inferiority of Admiral Cervera's squadron to that under Admiral Sampson might at the battle of Santiago have been to some extent counterbalanced by a skilful and vigorous use of torpedoes. If, instead of striving only to escape, a bold dash had been made for the American ships, the Spanish cruisers rapidly approaching end on to the foe, enveloped in the smoke of their own guns, should — some at least — have got within torpedo range without fatal injury. Closing each other at a speed of 10 knots only they would cover an interval of 6000 yds. in 9 minutes — a short time in which to disable a ship by gun-fire under such conditions. But Cervera elected to offer a passive resistance only, and while suffering destruction wrought no material injury upon his opponents. On the other hand, there have been TORPEDO 57 several instances of large warships being sunk by locomotive torpedoes discharged from small craft. During the Chilean revolutionary war of 1891, a battleship, the " Blanco Encalada," of 3500 tons, was attacked in Caldera Bay by two torpedo vessels — the " Lynch " and " Condell " — of 750 tons. They entered the bay at dawn, the " Condell " leading. This vessel fired three torpedoes which missed the ironclad; then the " Lynch," after one ineffective shot, discharged a second torpedo, which struck the " Blanco " on the side nearly amidships. The latter had opened fire with little result, and sank soon afterwards. A similar incident occurred in 1894, when the Brazilian ironclad " Aquidaban " was sunk in Catherina Bay by the " Sampaio " — a torpedo vessel of 500 tons. She entered the bay at night, and first discharged her bow torpedo at the ironclad, which missed; she then fired a broadside torpedo, which struck and exploded against the bow of the " Aquidaban." It caused a great shock on board, throwing an officer on the bridge into the water. The vessel sank soon afterwards, and the " Sampaio " escaped uninjured. In the war (1904-5) 'between Russia and Japan the Whitehead torpedo did not exercise an important influence upon the naval operations. It scored a success at the beginning of the struggle when a Japanese torpedo-flotilla made an attack upon the Russian fleet lying at anchor outside Port Arthur. For some unaccountable reason, though war was imminent, little or no precautions seemed to have been taken for effectually guarding the vessels. They had no nets in position nor boats patrolling outside them. Thus taken by surprise when the Japanese torpedo-boats suddenly appeared about midnight on the 8th of February 1904, several Russian ships were struck by torpedoes before they could offer any resistance. The most damaged were the " Retvisan " and " Tsarevitch " (battleships) and " Pallada " (cruiser), but all managed to get into Port Arthur and were eventually repaired. With three ships hors de combat the Russian fleet was considerably weakened at an early stage. The loss of the " Petropavlovsk " in April from a mine explosion was a further discouragement, especially as with this ship went down the gallant and energetic Admiral Makarov. In these circumstances the Russian fleet could not assume the offensive nor prevent the Japanese troops being sent by sea to invest Port Arthur. In June when the injured vessels were fit for service again the fleet put to sea but returned the same evening. The incident is noteworthy only because it led to an attack by the Japanese torpedo craft on the retiring squadron after sunset. As illustrating the uncertainty of hit- ting a moving object at sea with the Whitehead torpedo, already mentioned, no vessels were struck on this occasion and they reached the anchorage uninjured. In the battle of Tsushima the Japanese torpedo-boats attacked the Russian fleet after its disablement by gun-fire and gave the coup de grdce to some of the ships, which had little power of resistance owing to the destruction of their light armament. This war, therefore, did not increase to any extent our knowledge of the actual capability of this weapon. E/ect upon Naval Tactics: Blockade. — It has often been assumed that steam and the torpedo will in future render blockade impossible as it was carried out in the old wars; that, no longer dependent upon the wind to allow egress from the blockaded port, a vessel using steam can emerge when she chooses, while the fear of torpedo attack will deter a blockading squadron from keeping such watch as to foil the attempt. As regards the power conferred by steam, it will be no less advan- tageous to a blockading squadron, enabling it to maintain its position, whereas sailing ships were often driven by gales to leave their station and seek a port. This gave opportunities for the blockaded vessels to escape. As regards torpedo-boats, they would no doubt be a danger to a blockading squadron unpro- vided with a means of defence against these craft. Such defence consists in an adequate number of small vessels interposing an in-shore squadron between the port and the main body outside. Thus they perform the twofold service of watching the enemy's movements within and frustrating a torpedo attack. As an instance of blockade under modern conditions, we have that of Admiral Sampson upon Santiago — a guard more rigidly maintained than any in the old wars. So little was he deterred by the knowledge that Admiral Cervera had two torpedo vessels in his force, that he drew his squadron closer in at night when an attack might be expected, actually illuminating the entrance of the harbour with his electric searchlights, so that no craft could come out unperceived. No attempt was made to dislodge him from that position, and we may assume that blockade, if required in any scheme of naval strategy, will be carried out, whatever the weapons of warfare. As regards the effect of torpedoes upon tactics at sea, and in general, as well as single ship, actions, they must operate against close range and employment of the ram. If it is recognized that a vessel within 1000 yds. is liable to a fatal blow, she will endeavour in ordinary circumstances to keep outside that distance and rely upon gun-fire. The exception would be where she is overmatched in that respect, and hence might endeavour to restore the balance by the use of torpedoes. In a fleet action the danger of missing a foe and hitting a friend would restrict the discharge of torpedoes; and this risk increases as formations disappear. But the torpedo must be conceded a tactical superiority over the ram for the following reasons: A vessel to use the latter must come within torpedo range, while her adversary may successfully apply torpedoes without placing herself in any danger of being rammed. The ram can only be used in one direction, and a small miscalculation may cause disaster. If a vessel has more than one position from which torpedoes can be discharged, she is not confined as regards attack to a single bearing or direction. In action we may consider the speed of the torpedo as double that of the ship, and since against a moving object allowance must be made for the space traversed while ram or torpedo is travelling towards it, the faster weapon is less affected in its chance of successful impact by change of direction and speed of the object at the last moment. Lastly, with machinery disabled a ship is powerless to use the ram, but can avert a ram attack with her torpedoes. The movements of squadrons or single ships on entering an action are not likely to be influenced by any contemplated immediate use of torpedoes, for the gun must remain the primary weapon, at any rate at the first onset. Commanders would hardly risk being crushed by gun-fire before getting within torpedo range. Having faith in the efficiency of their ordnance and the gunnery skill of their crew, they would first manoeuvre to bring these into play. Tactics for torpedo attack in such circumstances have not therefore been laid down, and it is only necessary to consider the positions which are advantageous for the use of this weapon, and, conversely, what should be avoided when a vessel, finding herself overmatched in gunnery, seeks to redress the balance with torpedoes. Size of Target. — This, with a ship, varies in length as the torpedo approaches end on to the vessel, or at angle to the line of keel; the greatest being when the path of both forms a right angle. Hence the object is to place your ship where it presents the former condition to the enemy, while he affords the larger target. It must be remembered that, owing to the comparatively slow velocity of the torpedo, it must be aimed not directly at a ship in motion — like a shot from a gun — but at a point ahead which the ship will reach after the torpedo has traversed the intervening distance. Thus speed of object has to be estimated, and hence the importance of adding to the velocity of the torpedo and getting a broadside shot so as to reduce as much as possible errors of calculation. The great increase of the dimensions of warships, especially in length, which now has reached 500 ft., adds to the chances of a successful hit with torpedoes, and will doubtless tend to diminish a desire in future naval tactics to close inside torpedo range for the purpose of ramming. Range— Though the effective range of a_ torpedo discharged from a ship or torpedo vessel against a single object moving at high speed may be considered as approximately within 1000 yds. this limit of distance is considerably augmented where the target consists of several vessels at sea in close order, or is that afforded by a fleet at anchor. In the first case it may be worth while to discharge torpedoes from a distance of two or three thou- sand yards at the centre of the line for the chance of hitting one of the vessels composing it. As regards a mass of ships at anchor, TORQUAY— TORQUEMADA, T. unless protected by an impenetrable guard such as a breakwater or some invulnerable defence carried by the ships themselves, the increased range and accuracy of the torpedo imparted by recent developments would give it a chance of success if discharged against such a target at even greater distance. Finally, by improvements in construction and methods of dis- charge the torpedo has recovered the place it was rapidly losing a few years ago. As armour receives increased resisting power to above-water projectiles, and gets on a level again with the gun, more attention will be given to under-water attack, against which no adequate protection has yet been devised. Thus we. shall probably find the torpedo taking a very prominent place in any future war between the great maritime powers. (S. M E.-W.) TORQUAY, a municipal borough, seaport and watering place, in the Torquay parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on Tor Bay of the English Channel, 26 m. S. of Exeter, by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 33,625. Owing to the beauty of its site and the equability of its climate, and to its being screened by lofty hills on the north, east and west, and open to the sea-breezes of the south, it has a high reputation as a winter residence. The temperature seldom rises as high as 70° F. in summer or falls below freezing-point in winter. To the north lies the populous suburb of St Mary Church. There are some remains of Tor or Torre Abbey, founded for Praemonstratensians by William, Lord Brewer, in 1196. They stand north of the modern mansion, but, with the exception of a beautiful pointed arch portal, are of small importance. On the south of the gateway is a 13th-century building, known as the Spanish barn. On Chapel Hill are the remains of a chapel of the I2th century, dedicated to St Michael, and supposed to have formerly belonged to the abbey. St Saviour's parish church of Tor-Mohun, or Tor- moham, an ancient stone structure, was restored in 1874. The old church at St Mary Church, north of Torquay, was rebuilt in Early Decorated style; and in 1871 a tower was erected as a memorial to Dr Phillpotts, bishop of Exeter, who with his wife is buried in the churchyard. St John's Church, by G. E. Street, is a fine example of modern Gothic. Among the principal buildings and institutions are the town-hall, museum of the natural history society, theatre and opera-house (1880), market, schools of art and science, the Torbay infirmary and dispensary, the Western hospital for consumption, Crypt House institution for invalid ladies and the Mildmay home for incurable consumptives. The control of the harbour, piers, pleasure grounds, &c., was acquired from the lord of the manor by the local board in 1886. The harbour has a depth of over 20 ft. at low water. The principal imports are coal, timber and slates, and the principal export stone of the Transition limestone or Devonshire marble. In the town are a number of marble-polishing works. Terra-cotta ware of fine quality is also manufactured from a deposit of clay at Watcombe and at Hele. The town is governed by a mayor, 9 aldermen and 27 councillors. Area, 3588 acres. There was a village at Torre even before the foundation of the abbey, and in the neighbourhood of Torre evidence has been found of Roman occupation. The manor was granted by William the Conqueror to Richard de Bruvere or de Brewere, and was subsequently known as Tor Brewer. After the defeat of the Spanish Armada, Don Pedro's galley was brought into Torbay; and William, prince of Orange, landed at Torbay on the sth of November 1688. Until the middle of the igth century it was an insignificant fishing village. It was incorporated in 1892. TORQUE, or TORC (Lat. torquis, torques, a twisted collar, torquere, to twist), the term given by archaeologists to the twisted collars or armlets of gold or other metal worn particu- larly by the ancient Gauls and other allied Celtic races. The typical torque is a circlet with twisted rope-like strands, the ends not joined together; the torque was usually worn with the opening in the front as seen in a figure of a Gaul in a sculptured sarcophagus in the Capitoline Museum at Rome. In mechanics, the term " torque " is used of the turning-moment of a system- force, as in a series dynamo. TORQUEMADA, JUAN DE (1388-1468), or rather JOHANNES DE TURRECREMATA, Spanish ecclesiastic, was born at Valladolid, in 1388, and was educated in that city. At an early age he joined the Dominican order, and soon distinguished himself for learning and devotion. In 1415 he accompanied the general of his order to the Council of Constance, whence he proceeded to Paris for study, and took his doctor's degree in 1423. After teaching for some time in Paris he became prior of the Dominican house first in Valladolid and then in Toledo. In 1431 Pope Eugenius IV. called him to Rome and made him " magister sancti palatii." At the Council of Basel he was one of the ablest supporters of the view of the Roman curia, and he was rewarded with a cardinal's hat in 1439. He died at Rome on the 26th of September 1468. His principal works are In Gratiani Decretum commentarii (4 vpls., Venice, 1578) ; Expositio brevis et utilis super toto psalterio (Mainz, 1474); Quaesliones spirituales super evangelia totius anni (Brixen, 1498); Summa ecclesiastica (Salamanca, 1550). The last- named work has the following topics: (l) De universa ecclesia; (2) De Ecclesia romana et ppntificis primatu ; (3) De universali- bus conciliis ; (4) De schismaticis et haereticis. His De conceptime deiparae Mariae, libri viii. (Rome, 1547), was edited with preface and notes by E. B. Pusey (London, 1869 seq.). TORQUEMADA, THOMAS (1420-1498), inquisitor-general of Spain, son of Don Pedro Ferdinando, lord of Torquemada, a small town in Old Castile, was born in 1420 at Valladolid during the reign of John II. Being nephew to the well-known cardinal of the same name, he early displayed an attraction for the Dominican order; and, as soon as allowed, he joined the Friars Preachers in their convent at Valladolid. His biographers state that he showed himself from the beginning very earnest in austere life and humility; and he became a recognized example of the virtues of a Dominican. Valladolid was then the capital, and in due course eminent dignities were offered to him, but he gave signs of a determination to lead the simple life of a Friar Preacher, In the convent, his modesty was so great that he refused to accept the doctor's degree in theology, which is the highest prized honour in the order. His superiors, however, obliged him to take the priorship of the convent of Santa Cruz in Segovia, where he ruled for twenty-two years. The royal family, especially the queen and the infanta Isabella, often stayed at Segovia, and Torquemada became confessor to the infanta, who was then very young. He trained her to look on her future sovereignty as an engagement to make religion respected. Esprit Flechier, bishop of Nimes, in this Histoire du cardinal Jimenes (Paris, 1693), says that Torquemada made her promise that when she became queen she would make it her principal business to chastise and destroy heretics. He then began to teach her the political advantages of religion and to prepare the way for that tremendous engine in the hands of the state, the Inquisition. Isabella succeeded to the throne (1474) on the death of Henry IV. Torquemada had always been strong in his advice that she should marry Ferdinand of Aragon and thus consolidate the kingdoms of Spain. Hitherto he had rarely appeared at court ; but now the queen entrusted him not only with the care of her conscience, but also with the benefices in the royal patronage. He also helped her in quieting Ferdinand, who was chafing under the privileges of the Castilian grandees, and succeeded so well that the king also took him as confessor. Refusing the rich see of Seville and many other preferments he accepted that of councillor of state. For a long time he had pondered over the confusion in which Spain was, which he attributed to the intimate relations allowed between Christians and infidels for the sake of commerce. He saw Jews, Saracens, heretics and apostates roaming through Spain unmolested; and in this lax toleration of religious differences he thought he saw the main obstacle to the political union of the Spains, which was the necessity of the hour. He represented to Ferdinand and Isabella that it was essential to their safety to reorganize the Inquisition, which had since the I3th century (1236) been established in Spain. The bishops, who were ex officio inquisitors in their own dioceses, had not succeeded in putting a stop to the evils, nor had the friars, by whom they had been practically superseded. By the middle of the 15th century there was TORQUEMADA, T. 59 hardly an active inquisitor left in the kingdom. In 1473 Torquemada and Gonzalez de Mendoza, archbishop of Toledo, approached the sovereigns. Isabella had been for many years prepared, and she and Ferdinand, now that the proposal for this new tribunal came before them, saw in it a means of over- coming the independence of the nobility and clergy by which the royal power had been obstructed. With the royal sanction a petition was addressed to Sixtus IV. for the establishment of this new form of Inquisition; and as the result of a long intrigue, in 1479 a papal bull authorized the appointment by the Spanish sovereigns of two inquisitors at Seville, under whom the Dominican inquisitions already established elsewhere might serve. In the persecuting activity that ensued the Dominicans, " the Dogs of the Lord " (Domini canes), took the lead. Commissaries of the Holy Office were sent into different provinces, and ministers of the faith were established in the various cities to take cogni- sance of the crimes of heresy, apostasy, sorcery, sodomy and polygamy, these three last being considered to be implicit heresy. The royal Inquisition thus started was subversive of the regular tribunals of the bishops, who much resented the innovation, which, however, had the power of the state at its back. In 1481, three years after the Sixtine commission, a tribunal was inaugurated at Seville, where freedom of speech and licence of manner were rife. The inquisitors at once began to detect errors. In order not to confound the innocent with the guilty, Torquemada published a declaration offering grace and pardon to all who presented themselves before the tribunal and avowed their fault. Some fled the country, but many (Mariana says 17,000) offered themselves for reconciliation. The first seat of the Holy Office was in the convent of San Pablo, where the friars, however, resented the orders, on the pretext that they were not delegates of the inquisitor-general. Soon the gloomy fortress of Triana, on the opposite bank of the Guadalquivir, was prepared as the palace of the Holy Office; and the terror-stricken Sevil- lianos read with dismay over the portals the motto of the Inquisition: " Exsurge, Domine, Judica causam tuam, Capite nobis vulpes." Other tribunals, like that of Seville and under La Suprema, were speedily established in Cordova, Jaen and Toledo. The sovereigns saw that wealth was beginning to flow in to the new tribunals by means of fines and confiscations; and they obliged Torquemada to take as assessors five persons who would represent them in all matters affecting the royal prerogatives. These assessors were allowed a definite vote in temporal matters but not in spiritual, and the final decision was reserved to Torquemada himself, who in 1483 was appointed the sole inquisitor-general over all the Spanish possessions. In the next year he ceded to Diego Deza, a Dominican, his office of confessor to the sovereigns, and gave himself up to the congenial work of reducing heretics. A general assembly of his inquisitors was convoked at Seville for the 2gth of November 1484; and there he promulgated a code of twenty-eight articles for the guidance of the ministers of the faith. Among these rules are the following, which will give some idea of the procedure. Heretics were allowed thirty days to declare themselves. Those who availed themselves of this grace were only fined, and their goods escaped confiscation. Absolution in foro externo was forbidden to be given secretly to those who made voluntary confession; they had to submit to the ignominy of the public auto-de-fe. The result of this harsh law was that numerous applications were made to Rome for secret absolution; and thus much money escaped the Inquisition in Spain. Those who were reconciled were deprived of all honourable employment, and were forbidden to use gold, silver, jewelry, silk or fine wool. Against this law, too, many petitions went to Rome for rehabili- tation, until in 1498 the Spanish pope Alexander VI. granted leave to Torquemada to rehabilitate the condemned, and with- drew practically all concessions hitherto made and paid for at Rome. Fines were imposed by way of penance on those confessing willingly. If a heretic in the Inquisition asked for absolution, he could receive it, but subject to a life imprisonment; but if his repentance were but feigned he could be at once condemned and handed over to the civil power for execution. Should the accused, after the testimony against him had been made public, continue to deny the charge, he was to be con- demned as impenitent. When serious proof existed against one who denied his crime, he could be submitted to the question by torture; and if under torture he avowed his fault and confirmed his guilt by subsequent confession he was punished as one con- victed; but should he retract he was again to be submitted to the tortures or condemned to extraordinary punishment. This second questioning was afterwards forbidden; but the prohibi- tion was got over by merely suspending and then renewing the sessions for questioning. It was forbidden to communicate to the accused the entire copy of the declaration of the witnesses. The dead even were not free from the Holy Office; but processes could be instituted against them and their remains subjected to punishment. But along with these cruel and unjust measures there must be put down to Torquemada's credit some advanced ideas as to prison life. The cells of the Inquisition were, as a rule, large, airy, clean and with good windows admitting the sun. They were, in those respects, far superior to the civil prisons of that day. The use of irons was in Torquemada's time not allowed in the Holy Office; the use of torture was in accordance with the practice of the other royal tribunals; and when these gave it up the Holy Office did so also. Such were some of the methods that Torquemada introduced into the Spanish Inquisition, which was to have so baneful an effect upon the whole country. During the eighteen years that he was inquisitor-general it is said that he burnt 10,220 persons, condemned 6860 others to be burnt in effigy, and reconciled 97,321, thus making an average of some 6000 convictions a year. These figures are given by Llorente, who was secretary of the Holy Office from 1790 to 1792 and had access to the archives; but modern research reduces the list of those burnt by Torque- mada to 2000, in itself an awful holocaust to the principle of intolerance. The constant stream of petitions to Rome opened the eyes of the pope to the effects of Torquemada's severity. On three separate occasions he had to send Fray Alfonso Badaja to defend his acts before the Holy See. The sovereigns, too, saw the stream of money, which they had hoped for, diverted to the coffers of the Holy Office, and in 1493 they made com- plaint to the pope; but Torquemada was powerful enough to secure most of the money for the expenses of the Inquisition. But in 1496, when the sovereigns again complained that the inquisitors were, without royal knowledge or consent, disposing of the property of the condemned and thus depriving the public revenues of considerable sums, Alexander VI. appointed Jimenes to examine into the case and make the Holy Office disgorge the plunder. For many years Torquemada had been persuading the sove- reigns to make an attempt once for all to rid the country of the hated Moors. Mariana holds that the founding of the Inquisi- tion, by giving a new impetus to the idea of a united kingdom, made the country more capable of carrying to a satisfactory ending the traditional wars against the Moors. The taking of Zahaia in 1481 by the enemy gave occasion to reprisals. Troops were summoned to Seville and the war began by the siege of Alhama, a town eight leagues from Granada, the Moorish capital. Torquemada went with the sovereigns to Cordova, to Madrid or wherever the states-general were held, to urge on the war; and he obtained from the Holy See the same spiritual favours that had been enjoyed by the Crusaders. But he did not forget his favourite work of ferreting out heretics; and his ministers of the faith made great progress over all the kingdom, especially at Toledo, where merciless severity was shown to the Jews who had lapsed from Christianity. The Inquisition, although as a body the clergy did not mislike it, sometimes met with furious opposition from the nobles and common people. At Valentia and Lerida there were serious conflicts. At Saragossa Peter Arbue, a canon and an ardent inquisitor, was slain in 1485 whilst praying in a church; and the threats against the hated Torquemada made him go in fear of his life, and he never went abroad without an escort of forty familiars 6o TORRE ANNUNZIATA— TORRENS of the Holy Office on horseback and two hundred more on foot. In 1487 he went with Ferdinand to Malaga and thence to Valladolid, where in the October of 1488 he held another general congregation of the Inquisition and promulgated new laws based on the experience already gained. He then hurried back to Andalusia where he joined the sovereigns, who were now besieging Granada, which he entered with the conquering army in January 1492 and built there a convent of his order. The Moors being vanquished, now came the turn of the Jews. In 1490 had happened the case of El Santo nino de la Guardia — a child supposed to have been killed by the Jews. His existence had never been proved; and in the district of Guardia no child was reported as missing. The whole story was most probably the creation of imaginations stimulated by torture and despair, unless it was a deliberate fiction set forth for the purpose of provoking hostility against the Jews. For a long time' Torquemada had tried to get the royal consent to a general expulsion; but the sovereigns hesitated, and, as the victims were the backbone of the commerce of the country, proposed a ransom of 30x5,000 ducats instead. The indignant friar would hear of no compromise: "Judas," he cried, " sold Christ for 30 pence; and your highnesses wish to sell Him again for 300,000 ducats." Unable to bear up against the Domini- can's fiery denunciations, the sovereigns, three months after the fall of Granada, issued a decree ordering every Jew either to embrace Christianity or to leave the country, four months being given to make up their minds; and those who refused to become Christians to order had leave to sell their property and carry off their effects. But this was not enough for the in- quisitor-general, who in the following month (April) issued orders to forbid Christians, under severe penalties, having any communi- cation with the Jews or, after the period of grace, to supply them even with the necessaries of life. The former prohibition made it impossible for the unfortunate people to sell their goods which hence fell to the Inquisition. The numbers of Jewish families driven out of the country by Torquemada is variously stated from Mariana's 1,700,000 to the more probable 800,000 of later historians. The loss to Spain was enormous, and from this act of the Dominican the commercial decay of Spain dates. Age was now creeping on Torquemada, who, however, never would allow his misdirected zeal to rest. At another general assembly, his fourth, he gave new and more stringent rules, which are found in the Compilacidn de las instructions del officio de la Santa Inquisicidn. He took up his residence in Avila, where he had built a convent; and here he resumed the common life of a friar, leaving his cell in October 1497 to visit, at Salamanca, the dying infante, Don Juan, and to comfort the sovereigns in their parental distress. They often used to visit him at Avila, where in 1498, still in office as inquisitor-general, he held his last general assembly to complete his life's work. Soon afterwards he died, on the i6th of September 1498, " full of years and merit " says his biographer. He was buried in the chapel of the convent of St Thomas in Avila. The name of Torquemada stands for all that is intolerant and narrow, despotic and cruel. He was no real statesman or minister of the Gospel, but a blind fanatic, who failed to see that faith, which is the gift of God, cannot be imposed on any conscience by force. (E. TN.) TORRE ANNUNZIATA, a seaport of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, on the east of the Bay of Naples, and at the south foot of Mt Vesuvius, 14 m. S.E. of Naples by rail. Pop. (1901), 25,070 (town); 28,084 (commune). It is on the main line to Battipaglia, at the point of junction of a branch line from Cancello round the east of Vesuvius, and of the branch to Castellammare di Stabia and Gragnano. It has a royal arms factory established by Charles IV., and other ironworks, considerable manufacture of macaroni, paper, breeding of silkworms, and some fishing and shipping. The harbour is protected by moles. Remains attributed to the Roman post- station of Oplontis were discovered in making the railway between Torre del Greco and Torre Annunziata, a little west of the latter, in 1842. TORRE DEL GRECO, a seaport of Campania, Italy, in the province of Naples, 7! m. S.E. of that city by rail. Pop. (1901), 35,328. It lies at the south-west foot of Vesuvius, on the shore of the Bay of Naples. It is built chiefly of lava, and stands on the lava stream of 1631, which destroyed two-thirds of the older town. Great damage was done by the eruptions of 1737 and 1794; the earthquake of 1857 and the eruption of the 8th of December 1861 were even more destructive. After each dis- aster the people returned, the advantage of the rich volcanic land overcoming apprehensions of danger. In the outskirts are many beautiful villas and gardens. The town has shipbuilding yards and lava quarries. The inhabitants take part in the coral and sponge fishing off the African and Sicilian coasts, and coral is worked in the town. There is also fishing for tunny, sardines and oysters; hemp is woven, and the neighbourhood is famed for its fruit and wine. In June the great popular festival "Dei Quattro Altari " is annually celebrated here in commemoration of the abolition of the feudal dominion in 1700. Remains of ancient villas and baths have been found here. TORRENS, ROBERT (1780-1864), English soldier and econo- mist, was born in Ireland in 1780. He entered the Marines in 1797, became a captain in 1806, and major in 1811 for bravery in Anhalt during the Walcheren expedition. He fought in the Peninsula, becoming lieutenant-colonel in 1835 and retiring as colonel in 1837. After abortive attempts to enter parliament in 1818 and 1826, he was returned in 1831 as member for Ashburton. He was a prolific writer, principally on financial and commercial policy. Almost the whole of the pro- gramme which was carried out in legislation by Sir Robert Peel had been laid down in his economic writings. He was an early and earnest advocate of the repeal of the corn laws, but was not in favour of a general system of absolute free trade, maintaining that it is expedient to impose retaliatory duties to countervail similar duties imposed by foreign countries, and a lowering of import duties on the productions of countries retaining their hostile tariffs would occasion a decline in prices, profits and wages. His principal writings of a general character were: The Economist [i.e. Physiocrat] refuted (1808); Essay on the Production of Wealth (1821); Essay on the External Corn-trade (eulogized by Ricardp) (1827) ; The Budget, a Series of Letters on Financial, Commercial and Colonial Policy (1841-1843); The Principles and Practical Operations of Sir Robert Peel's Act of 1844 Explained and Defended (1847). TORRENS, SIR ROBERT RICHARD (1814-1884), British colonial statesman, was born at Cork, Ireland, in 1814, and educated at Trinity College, Dublin. He went to South Aus- tralia in 1840, and was appointed collector of customs. He was an official member of the first legislative council and in 1852 was treasurer and registrar-general. When responsible govern- ment was established he was elected as a representative for Adelaide and became a member of the first ministry. In 1857 he introduced his famous Real Property Act, the principle of which consists of conveyance by registration and certificate instead of deeds. The system was rapidly adopted in the other colonies and elsewhere, and was expounded by the author during a visit to the United Kingdom in 1862-1864. After leaving South Australia, Sir R. R. Torrens represented Cambridge in the House of Commons from 1868 to 1874; in 1872 he was knighted. He was the author of works on the effect of the gold discoveries on the currency, and other subjects. He died on the 3ist of August 1884. TORRENS, WILLIAM TORRENS M'CULLAGH (1813-1894), English politician and social reformer, son of James M'Cullagh (whose wife's maiden name, Torrens, he assumed in 1863), was born near Dublin on the I3th of October 1813. He was called to the bar, and in 1835 became assistant commissioner on the special commission on Irisrupoor-relief, which resulted in the extension of the workhouse system in Ireland in 1838. In the "forties he joined the Anti-Corn Law League, TORRES NAHARRO, B. DE— TORRICELLI 61 and in 1846 published his Industrial History of Free Nations. In 1847 he was elected to parliament for Dundalk, and sat till 1852. In 1857 he was elected as a Liberal for Yarmouth and from 1865 to 1885 he represented Finsbury. Torrens was a well known man in political life, and devoted himself mainly to social questions in parliament. It was an amend- ment of his to the Education Bill of 1870 which established the London School Board, and his Artisans' Dwellings Bill in 1868 facilitated the clearing away of slums by local authorities. He published several books, and his Twenty Years in Parlia- ment (1893) and History of Cabinets (1894) contain useful material. He died in London on the 26th of April 1894. TORRES NAHARRO, BARTOLOM6 DE (1480-1530;, Spanish dramatist, was born towards the end of the isth century at Torres, near Badajoz. After some years of soldiering and of captivity in Algiers, Torres Naharro took orders, settled in Rome about 1511, and there devoted himself chiefly to writing plays. Though he alludes to the future pope, Clement VII. as his protector, he left Rome to enter the household of Fabrizio Colonna at Naples where his works were printed under the title of Propaladia (1517). He is conjectured to have returned to his native place, and to have died there shortly after 1529. His Dialogo del nacimiento is written in unavowed, though obvious, imitation of Encina, but in his subsequent plays he shows a much larger conception of dramatic possibilities. He classifies his pieces as comedias a noticia and comedias d fantasia; the former, of which the Soldatesca and Tinellaria are examples, present in dramatic form incidents within his personal experience; the latter, which include such plays as Serafina, Himenea, Calamita and Aquilana, present imaginary episodes with adroitness and persuasiveness. Torres Naharro is much less dexterous in stage- craft than many inferior successors, his humour is rude and boisterous and his diction is unequal; but to a varied knowledge of human nature he adds knowledge of dramatic effect, and his rapid dialogue, his fearless realism and vivacious fancy prepared the way for the romantic drama in Spain. TORRES NOVAS, a town of Portugal, in the district of San- tarem, 19 m. N.N.E. of Santarem on the Lisbon-Entroncamento railway. Pop. (1900), 10,746. It manufactures cottons, linens, jute, paper, leather and spirits. It was probably founded by Greeks, and was held by the Romans, Goths and Moors, from whom it was conquered in 1148 by Alphonso I. of Portugal. TORRES VEDRAS, a town of Portugal, in the district of Lisbon, 43 m. N. by W. of Lisbon, on the Lisbon-Figueira da Foz railway. Pop. (1900), 6900. Torres Vedras is built on the left bank of the river Sizandro; it has a Moorish citadel and hot sulphur baths. Roman inscriptions and other remains have been found here, but the Latin name of the town, Turres Veleres, is probably medieval. Here were the noted fortifica- tions known as the " lines of Torres Vedras," constructed by Wellington in 1810 (see PENINSULAR WAR). Here also in 1846 the troops of General Saldanha defeated those of the count de Bomfin and seized the castle and town (see PORTUGAL: History). TORRES Y VILLAROEL, DIEGO DE (1696-1759?), Spanish miscellaneous writer, was born hi 1696 at Salamanca, where his father was bookseller to the university. In his teens Torres escaped to Portugal where he enlisted under a false name; he next moved tc Madrid, living from hand to mouth as a hawker; in 1717 he was ordained subdeacon, resumed his studies at Salamanca, and in 1726 became professor of mathematics at the university. A friend of his having stabbed a priest, Torres was suspected of complicity, and once more fled to Portugal, where he remained till his innocence was proved. He then returned to his chair, which he resigned in 1751 to act as steward to two noblemen; he was certainly alive in 1758, but the date of his death is not known. Torres had so slight a smattering of mathematics that his appointment as professor was thought scandalous even in his own scandalous age; yet he quickly acquired a store of knowledge which he displayed with serene assurance. His almanacs, his verses, his farces, his devotional and pseudo-scientific writings show that he possessed the alert adaptiveness of the born adventurer; but all that remains of his fourteen volumes (1745-1752) is his autobiography, an amusing record of cynical effrontery and successful imposture. TORREVIEJA, a seaport of south-eastern Spain, in the pro- vince of Alicante, 3 m. S.W. of Cape Cervera, and at the terminus of a railway to Albatera on the Alicante-Murcia line. Pop. (1900), 7706. The district is famous for its salt beds, which are owned and worked by the state, the Laguna Grande alone yielding more than 100,000 tons a year. The other industries are chiefly fishing, shipbuilding and the manufacture of ropes and sails. The roadstead affords safe anchorage. There is an active trade in fruit and agricultural products. TORREY, JOHN (1796-1873), American botanist, was bom at New York on the i5th of August 1796. When he was 15 or 16 years of age his father received a prison appointment at Greenwich, and there he made the acquaintance of Amos Eaton (i 776-1842), a pioneer of natural history studies in America. He thus learned the elements of botany, as well as something of mineralogy and chemistry. In 1815 he began the study of medicine, qualifying in 1818. In the following year he issued his Catalogue of Plants growing spontaneously within Thirty Miles of the City of New York, and in 1824 he issued the first and only volume of his Flora of the Northern and Middle States. In the same year he obtained the chair of chemistry and geology at West Point military academy, and three years later the pro- fessorship of chemistry and botany in the College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York. In 1836 he was appointed botanist to the state of New York and produced his Flora of that state in 1843; while from 1838 to 1843 he carried on the publication of the earlier portions of Flora of North America, with the assistance of his pupil, Asa Gray. From 1853 he was chief assayer to the United States assay office, but he continued to take an interest in botanical teaching until his death at New York on the loth of March 1873. He made over his valuable herbarium and botanical library to Columbia College in 1860, and he was the first president of the Torrey Botanical Club in 1873. His name is commemorated in the small coniferous genus Torreya, found in North America and in China and Japan. T. taxifolia, a native of Florida, is known as the Torrey tree or savin, and also as the stinking cedar. TORREY, REUBEN ARCHER (1856- ), American evange- list, was born in Hoboken, New Jersey, on the 28th of January 1856. He graduated at Yale University in 1875 and at the Yale Divinity School in 1878. He became a Congregational minister in 1878, studied theology at Leipzig and Erlanger in 1882-1883, joined D. L. Moody in his evangelistic work in Chicago in 1889, and became pastor of the Chicago Avenue Church in 1894 and afterwards superintendent of the Moody Bible Institute of Chicago. In 1902-1903 he preached in nearly every part of the English-speaking world, and with Charles McCallon Alexander (b. 1867) conducted revival services in Great Britain in 1903- 1905; Torrey conducted a similar campaign in American and Canadian cities in 1906-1907. TORRICELLI, EVANGELISTA (1608-1647), Italian physicist and mathematician, was born at Faenza on the isth of October 1608. Left fatherless at an early age, he was educated under the care of his uncle, a Camaldolese monk, who in 1627 sent him to Rome to study science under the Benedictine Benedetto Castelli (1577-1644), professor of mathematics at the Collegio di Sapienza. The perusal of Galileo's Dialoghi delle nuove scienze (1638) inspired him with many developments of the mechanical principles there set forth, which he embodied in a treatise De motu (printed amongst his Opera geometrica, 1644). Its communication by Castelli to Galileo in 1641, with a proposal that Torricelli should reside with him, led to Torricelli repairing to Florence, where he met Galileo, and acted as his amanuensis during the three remaining months of his life. After Galileo's death Torricelli was nominated grand-ducal mathematician and professor of mathematics in the Florentine academy. The discovery of the principle of the barometer (q.v.) which has perpetuated his fame (" Torricellian tube " " Torricellian vacuum ") was made in 1643. TORRIDONIAN— TORRINGTON, EARL OF The publication amongst Torricelli's Opera geometrica (Florence, 1644) of a tract on the properties of the cycloic involved him in a controversy with G. P. de Roberval, who accused him of plagiarizing his earlier solution of the problem oi its quadrature. There seems, however, no room for doubt that Torricelli's was arrived at independently. The matter was still in debate when he was seized with pleurisy, and died at Florence on the 25th of October 1647. He was buried in San Lorenzo, and a commemorative statue of him erected at Faenza in 1864. Among the new truths detected by him was the valuable mechanical principle that if any number of bodies be so con- nected that, by their motion, their centre of gravity can neither ascend nor descend, then those bodies are in equilibrium. He also discovered the remarkable fact that the parabolas described (in a vacuum) by indefinitely numerous projectiles discharged from the same point with equal velocities, but in all directions have a paraboloid of revolution for their envelope. His theorem that a fluid issues from a small orifice with the same velocity (friction and atmospheric resistance being neglected) which it would have acquired in falling through the depth from its sur- face is of fundamental importance in hydraulics. He greatly ' improved both the telescope and microscope. Several large object lenses, engraven with his name, are preserved at Florence. He used and developed B. Cavalieri's method of indivisibles. A selection from Torricelli's manuscripts was published by Tommaso Bonaventura in 1715, with the title Lezioni accademiche (Florence). They include an address of acknowledgment on his admission to the Accademia della Crusca. His essay on the inun- dations of the Val di Chiana was printed in Raccolta d'autori che trattano del motodelV acque, iv. 115 (Florence, 1768), and amongst Opusculi idraidici, iii. 347 (Bologna, 1822). For his life see Fabroni, Vitae Italorum, i. 345 ; Ghinassi, Lettere fin qui inedite di Evan- gelista Torricelli (Faenza, 1864) ; Tiraboschi, Storia della lett. it. viii. 302 (ed. 1824); Montucla, Hist, des math., vol. ii. ; Marie, Hist, des sciences, iv. 133. TORRIDONIAN, in geology, a series of pre-Cambrian are- naceous sediments extensively developed in the north-west high- lands of Scotland and particularly in the neighbourhood of upper Loch Torridon, a circumstance which suggested the name Torridon Sandstone, first applied to these rocks by J. Nicol. The rocks are mainly red and chocolate sandstones, arkoses, flagstones and shales with coarse conglomerates locally at the base. Some of the materials of these rocks were derived from the underlying Lewisian gneiss, upon the uneven surface of which they rest; but the bulk of the material was obtained from rocks that are nowhere now exposed. Upon this ancient •denuded land surface the Torridonian strata rest horizontally or with gentle inclination. Their outcrop extends in a belt of variable breadth from Cape Wrath to the Point of Sleet in Skye, running in a N.N.E.-S.S.W. direction through Ross-shire and Sutherlandshire. They form the isolated mountain peaks of Canisp, Quinag and Suilven in the neighbourhood of Loch Assynt, of Slioch near Loch Maree and other hills. They attain their maximum development in the Applecross, Gairloch and Torridon districts, form the greater part of Scalpay, and occur also in Rum, Raasay, Soay and the Crowlin Islands. The Torridonian rocks have been subdivided into three groups: an upper Aultbea group, 3000-5000 ft.; a middle or Applecross group, 6000-8000 ft.; and a lower or Diabeg group, 500 ft. in Gairloch but reaching a thickness of 7200 ft. in Skye. See " The Geological Structure of the North- West Highlands of Scotland," Mem. Geol. Survey (Glasgow, 1907). (J. A. H.) TORRIGIANO, PIETRO (1472-1522), Florentine sculptor, was, according to Vasari, one of the group of talented youths who studied art under the patronage of Lorenzo the Magnificent in Florence. Benvenuto Cellini, reporting a conversation with Torrigiano, relates that he and Michelangelo, while both young, were copying the frescoes in the Carmine chapel, when some slighting remark made by Michelangelo so enraged Torrigiano that he struck him on the nose, and thus caused that disfigure- ment which is so conspicuous in all the portraits of Michelangelo. Soon after this Torrigiano visited Rome, and helped Pintu- ricchio in modelling the elaborate stucco decorations in the Apartamenti Borgia for Alexander VI. After some time spent as a hired soldier in the service of different states, Torrigiano was invited to England to execute the magnificent tomb for Henry VII. and his queen, which still exists in the lady chapel of West- minster Abbey. This appears to have been begun before the death of Henry VII. in I5O9> but was not finished till 1517. The two effigies are well modelled, and have lifelike but not too realistic portraits. After this Torrigiano received the com- mission for the altar, retable and baldacchino which stood at the west, outside the screen of Henry VII. 's tomb. The altar had marble pilasters at the angles, two of which still exist, and below the mensa was a life-sized figure of the dead Christ in painted terra-cotta. The retable consisted of a large relief of the Resurrection. The baldacchino was of marble, with enrich- ments of gilt bronze; part of its frieze still exists, as do also a large number of fragments of the terra-cotta angels which sur- mounted the baldacchino and parts of the large figure of Christ. The whole of this work was destroyed by the Puritans in the i7th century.1 Henry VIII. also commissioned Torrigiano to make him a magnificent tomb, somewhat similar to that of Henry VII., but one-fourth larger, to be placed in a chapel at Windsor; it was, however, never completed, and its rich bronze was melted by the Commonwealth, together with that of Wolsey's tomb. The indentures for these various works still exist, and are printed by Neale, Westminster Abbey, i. 54-59 (London, 1818). These interesting documents are written in English, and in them the Florentine is called " Peter Torrysany." For Henry VII. 's tomb he contracted to receive £1500, for the altar and its fit- tings £1000, and £2000 for Henry VIII. 's tomb. Other works attributed from internal evidence to Torrigiano are the tomb of Margaret of Richmond, mother of Henry VII., in the south aisle of his chapel, and a terra-cotta effigy in the chapel of the Rolls. While these royal works were going on Torrigiano visited Florence in order to get skilled assistants. He tried to induce Benvenuto Cellini to come to England to help him, but Cellini refused partly from his dislike to the brutal and swaggering manners of Torrigiano, and also because he did not wish to live among " such beasts as the English." The latter part of Torrigiano's life was spent in Spain, especially at Seville, where, besides the painted figure of St Hieronymus in the museum, some terra-cotta sculpture by him still exists. His violent temper got him into difficulties with the authorities, and he ended his life in 1522 in the prisons of the Inquisition. See Wilhelm Bode, Die italienische Plastik (Berlin, 1902). TORRINGTON, ARTHUR HERBERT, EARL OF (1647- 1716), British admiral, was the son of a judge, Sir Edward Herbert (c. 1591-1657). He entered the navy in 1663, and served in the Dutch wars of the reign of Charles II., as well as against the Barbary pirates. From 1680 to 1683 he commanded in the Mediterranean. His career had been honourable, and he had been wounded in action. The known Royalist sentiments of his family combined with his reputation as a naval officer to point him out to the favour of the king, and James II. appointed bim rear-admiral of England and master of the robes. The king no doubt counted on his support of the repeal of the Test Acts, as the admiral was member for Dover. Herbert refused, and was dismissed from his places. He now entered into com- munication with the agents of the prince of Orange, and promised to use his influence with the fleet to forward a revolution. After the acquittal of the seven bishops in 1688 he carried the nvitation to William of Orange. The Revolution brought him ample amends for his losses. He was named first lord, and took the command of the fleet at home. In 1689 he was at sea attempting to prevent the French admiral Chateau-Renault (q.ii.) from landing the troops sent by the king of France to the aid of King James in Ireland. Though he fought an action with 'An old drawing still exists showing this elaborate work; it is ngraved in the Hierurgia anglicana, p. 267 (London, 1848). Many lundreds of fragments of this terra-cotta sculpture were found a ew years ago hidden under the floor of the triforium in the abbey; hey are unfortunately too much broken and imperfect to be fitted together. TORRINGTON, VISCOUNT— TORRINGTON the French in Bantry Bay on the loth of May he failed to baffle Chateau-Renault, who had a stronger force. Being discontented with the amount of force provided at sea, he resigned his place at the admiralty, but retained his command at sea. In May 1689 he was created earl of Torrington. In 1690 he was in the Channel with a fleet of English and Dutch vessels, which did not rise above 56 in all, and found himself in front of the much more powerful French fleet. In his report to the council of regency he indicated his intention of retiring to the Thames, and losing sight of the enemy, saying that they would not do any harm to the coast while they knew his fleet to be " in being." The council, which knew that the Jacobites were preparing for a rising, and only waited for the support of a body of French troops, ordered him not to lose sight of the enemy, but rather than do that to give battle " upon any advantage of the wind." On the loth of July Torrington, after consulting with his Dutch colleagues, made a half-hearted attack on the French off Beachy Head in which his own ship was kept out of fire, and severe loss fell on his allies. Then he retired to the Thames. The French pursuit was fortunately feeble (see TOURVILLE, COMTE DE) and the loss of the allies was comparatively slight. The indignation of the country was at first great, and Torrington was brought to a court martial in December. He was acquitted, but never again employed. Although twice married, he was childless when he died on the i4th of April 1716, his earldom becoming extinct. The unfavourable account of his moral character given by Dartmouth to Pepys is confirmed by Bishop Burnet, who had seen much of him during his exile in Holland. An attempt has been made in recent years to rehabilitate the character of Torrington, and his phrase " a fleet in being " has been widely used (see Naval Warfare, by Vice-Admiral P. H. Colomb). See Charnock's Biog. Nav., i. 258. The best account of the battle of Beachy Head is to be found in " The Account given by Sir John Ashby Vice-Admiral and Rear-Admiral Rooke, to the Lords Com- missioners " (1691). TORRINGTON, GEORGE BYNG, VISCOUNT (1663-1733), English admiral, was born at Wrotham, Kent. His father, John Byng, was compelled by pecuniary losses to sell his property and his son entered the navy as a king's letter boy (see NAVY) in 1678. He served in a ship stationed at Tangier, and for a time left the navy to enter one of the regiments of the garrison, but in 1683 he returned to the navy as lieutenant, and went to the East Indies in the following year. During the year 1688, he had an active share in bringing the fleet over to the prince of Orange, and by the success of the revolution his fortune was made. In 1702 he was appointed to the command of the " Nassau," and was at the taking and burning of the French fleet at Vigo, and the next year he was made rear-admiral of the red. In 1704 he served in the Mediterranean under Sir Cloudesley Shovel, and reduced Gibraltar. He was in the battle of Malaga, and for his gallantry received the honour of knight- hood. In 1708 as admiral of the blue he commanded the squadron which baffled the attempt of the Old Pretender to land in Scotland. In 1718 he commanded the fleet which defeated the Spaniards off Cape Passaro and compelled them to withdraw from their invasion of Sicily. This commission he executed so well that the king made him a handsome present and sent him full powers to negotiate with the princes and states of Italy. Byng procured for the emperor's troops free access into the fortresses which still held out in Sicily, sailed afterwards to Malta, and brought out the Sicilian galleys and a ship belonging to the Turkey Company. By his advice and assistance the Germans retook the city of Messina in 1719, and destroyed the ships which lay in the basin — an achievement which completed the ruin of the naval power of Spain. To his conduct it was entirely owing that Sicily was subdued and the king of Spain forced to accept the terms prescribed him by the quadruple alliance. On his return to England in 1721 he was made rear-admiral of Great Britain, a member of the privy council, Baron Byng of Southill, in the county of Bedford and Viscount Torrington in Devonshire. He was also made one of the Knights Com- panions of the Bath upon the revival of that order in 1725. In 1727 George II. on his accession made him first lord of the admiralty, and his administration was distinguished by the establishment of the Royal Naval College at Portsmouth. He died on the I7th of January 1733, and was buried at Southill, in Bedfordshire. Two of his eleven sons, Pattee (1699-1747) and George (1701-1750), became respectively the 2nd and 3rd viscounts. The title is still held by the descendants of the latter. See Memoirs relating to Lord Torrington, Carnden Soc., new series 46, and A True Account of the Expedition of the British Fleet to Sicily 1718-1720, published anonymously, but known to be by Thomas Corbett of the admiralty in 1739. Forbin's Memoirs contain the French side of the expedition to Scotland in 1708. TORRINGTON, a borough of Litchfield county, Connecticut, U.S.A., in the township of Torrington, on the Naugatuck river, about 25 m. W. of Hartford. Pop. (1900), 8360, of whom 2565 were foreign-born; (1910) 15,483; of the township, including the borough (1900) 12,453; (1910) 16,840. It is served by the New York, New Haven & Hartford railway and by an electric line con- necting with Winsted. It has a public library (1865) with 15,000 volumes in 1909. There is a state armoury in the borough. Torrington is a prosperous manufacturing centre. In 1905 the value of the factory product was $9,674,124. The township of Torrington, originally a part of the township of Windsor, was first settled in 1734, and was separately incorporated in 1740. The site was covered by pine trees, which were much used for ship-building, and for this reason it was known as Mast Swamp. In 1751 a mill was erected, but there were few, if any, residences until 1800. In 1806 the settlement was known as New Orleans village. In 1813 members of the Wolcott family of Litchfield, impressed with the water-power, bought land and built a woollen mill, and the village that soon developed was called Wolcottville. Its growth was slow until 1864. In 1881 its name was changed to Torrington, and in 1887 the borough was incorporated. See S. Orcutt's History of Torrington (Albany, 1878), and an article, " The Growth of Torrington," in the Connecticut Magazine, vol. ix., No. i. TORRINGTON (GREAT TORRINGTON), a market town and municipal borough in the South Molton parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the Torridge, 225 m. W. by S. of London by the London & South-Western railway. Pop. (1901), 3241. It stands on a hill overlooking the richly wooded valley of the Torridge, here crossed by three bridges. Glove manufactures on a large scale, with flour and butter making and leather dressing, are the staple industries. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area, 3592 acres. Torrington (Toritone) was the site of very early settlement, and possessed a market in Saxon times. The manor was held by Brictric in the reign of Edward the Confessor, and in 1086 formed part of the Domesday fief of Odo Fitz Gamelin, which later constituted an honour with Torrington as its caput. In 1 221 it appears as a mesne borough under William de Toritone, a descendant of Odo and the supposed founder of the castle, which in 1228 was ordered to be razed to the ground, but is said to have been rebuilt in 1340 by Richard de Merton. The borough had a fair in 1221, and returned two members to parlia- ment from 1295 until exempted from representation at its own request in 1368. The government was vested in bailiffs and a commonalty, and no charter of incorporation was granted till that of Queen Mary in 1554, which instituted a governing body of a mayor, 7 aldermen and 18 chief burgesses, with authority to hold a court of record every three weeks on Monday; law-days and view of frankpledge at Michaelmas and Easter; a weekly market on Saturday, and fairs at the feasts of St Michael and St George. This charter was confirmed by Elizabeth in 1568 and by James I. in 1617. A charter from James II. in 1686 changed the style of the corporation to a mayor, 8 aldermen and 12 chief burgesses. In the i6th century Torrington was an important centre of the clothing trade, and in 1605 the town is described as very prosperous, with three TORSTENSSON— TORT fairs, and a great market " furnished from far on every quarter, being the most convenient place for occasions of king or county in those parts." The Saturday market is still maintained, but the fairs have been altered to the third Saturday in March and the first Thursday in May. In 1643 Colonel Digby took up his position at Torrington and put to flight a contingent of parliamentary troops; but in 1646 the town was besieged by Sir Thomas Fairfax and finally forced to surrender. The borough records were destroyed by fire in 1724. See Victoria County History: Devonshire; F. T. Colby, History of Great Torrington (1878). TORSTENSSON, LENNART, COUNT (1603-1651), Swedish soldier, son of Torsten Lennartsson, commandant of Elfsborg, was born at Forstena in Vestergotland. At the age of fifteen he became one of the pages of the young Gustavus Adolphus and served during the Prussian campaigns of 1628-29. In 1629 he was set over the Swedish artillery, which under his guidance materially contributed to the victories of Breitenfeld (1631) and Lech (1632). The same year he was taken prisoner at Alte Veste and shut up for nearly a year at Ingolstadt. Under Baner he rendered distinguished service at the battle of Wittstock (1636) and during the energetic defence of Pomerania in 1637-38, as well as at the battle of Chemnitz (1638) and in the raid into Bohemia in 1639. Illness compelled him to return to Sweden in 1641, when he was made a senator. The sudden death of Baner in May 1641 recalled Torstensson to Germany as generalissimo of the Swedish forces and governor-general of Pomerania. He was at the same time promoted to the rank of field marshal. The period of his command (1641-1645) forms one of the most brilliant chapters in the military history of Sweden. In 1642 he marched through Brandenburg and Silesia into Moravia, taking all the principal fortresses on his way. On returning through Saxony he well nigh annihilated the imperialist army at the second battle of Breitenfeld (Oct. 23, 1642). In 1643 he invaded Moravia for the second time, but was suddenly recalled to invade Denmark, when his rapid and unexpected intervention paralysed the Danish defence on the land side, though Torstensson's own position in Jutland was for a time precarious owing to the skilful handling of the Danish fleet by Christian IV. In 1644 he led his army for the third time into the heart of Germany and routed the imperialists at Jiiterbog (Nov. 23). At the beginning of November 1645 he broke into Bohemia, and the brilliant victory of Jankow (Feb. 24, 1645) laid open before him the road to Vienna. Yet, though one end of the Danube bridge actually fell into his hands, his exhausted army was unable to penetrate any farther and, in December the same year, Tor- stensson, crippled by gout, was forced to resign his command and return to Sweden. In 1647 he was created a count. From 1648 to 1651 he ruled all the western provinces of Sweden, as governor-general. On his death at Stockholm (April 7, 1651) he was buried solemnly in the Riddarholmskyrka, the Pantheon of Sweden. Torstensson was remarkable for the extraordinary and incalculable rapidity of his movements, though very frequently he had to lead the army in a litter, as his bodily infirmities would not permit him to mount his horse. He was also the most scientific artillery officer and the best and most successful engineer in the Swedish army. His son, Senator Count Anders Torstensson (1641-1686), was from 1674 to 1681 governor-general of Esthonia. The family became extinct on the sword-side in 1727. See J. W. de Peyster, History of the Life of L. Torstensson (Pough- keepsie, 1855); J. Feil, Torstensson before Vienna (trans, by de Peyster, New York, 1885); Gustavus III., Eulogy of Torstensson (trans, by de Peyster, New York, 1872). (R. N. B.) TORT (Fr. for wrong, from Lat. tortus, twisted, participle of torquere), the technical term, in the law of England, of those dominions and possessions of the British Empire where the common law has been received or practically adopted in civil affairs, and of the United States, for a civil wrong, i.e. the breach of a duty imposed by law, by which breach some person becomes entitled to sue for damages. A tort must, on the one hand, be an act which violates a general duty. The rule which it breaks must be one made by the law, not, as in the case of a mere breach of contract, a rule which the law protects because the parties have made it for themselves. On the other hand, a tort is essentially the source of a private right of action. An offence which is punishable, but for which no one can bring a civil action, is not a tort. It is quite possible for one and the same act to be a tort and a breach of contract, or a tort and a crime; it is even possible in one class of cases for the plaintiff to have the option — for purposes of procedural advantage — of treating a real tort as a fictitious contract; but there is no necessary or general connexion. Again, it is not the case that pecuniary damages are always or necessarily the only remedy for a tort; but the right to bring an action in common law juris- diction, as distinct from equity, matrimonial or admiralty jurisdiction, with the consequent right to damages, is invariably present where a tort has been committed. This technical use of the French word tort (which at one time was near becoming a synonym of wrong in literary English) is not very ancient, and anything like systematic treatment of the subject as a whole is very modern. Since about the middle of the i9th century there has been a current assumption that all civil causes of action must be founded on either contract or tort; but there is no historical foundation for this doctrine, though modified forms of the action of trespass — actions in consimili casu, or "on the case " in the accustomed English phrase — did in practice largely supplant other more archaic forms of action by reason of their greater convenience. The old forms were designed as penal remedies for manifest breach of the peace or corruption of justice; and traces of the penal element remained in them long after the substance of the procedure had become private and merely civil. The transition belongs to the general history of English law. In England the general scope of the law of torts has never been formulated by authority, the law having in fact been developed by a series of disconnected experiments with the various forms of action which seemed from time to time to promise the widest and most useful remedies. But there is no doubt that the duties enforced by the English law of torts are broadly those which the Roman institutional writers summed up in the precept Alterum non laedere. Every member of a civilized commonwealth is entitled to require of others a certain amount of respect for his person, reputation and property, and a certain amount of care and caution when they go about undertakings attended with risk to their neighbours. Under the modern law, it is submitted, the question arising when one man wilfully or recklessly harms another is not whether some technical form of action can be found in which he is liable, but whether he can justify or excuse himself. This view, at any rate, is countenanced by a judgment of the Supreme Court of the United States delivered in 1904. If it be right, the controverted question whether conspiracy is or is not a substantive cause of action seems to lose most of its importance. Instead of the doubtful proposition of law that some injuries become unlawful only when inflicted by concerted action, we shall have the plain proposition of fact that some kinds of injury cannot, as a rule, be inflicted by one person with such effect as to produce any damage worth suing for. The precise amount of responsibility can be determined only by full consideration in each class of cases. It is important to observe, however, that a law of responsibility confined to a man's own personal acts and defaults would be of next to no practical use under the conditions of modern society. What makes the law of torts really effective, especially with regard to redress for harm suffered by negligence, is the universal rule of law that every one is answerable for the acts and defaults of his servants (that is, all persons acting under his direction and taking their orders from him or some one representing him) in the course of their employment. The person actually in fault is not the less answerable, but the remedy against him is very commonly not worth pursuing. But for this rule corporations could not be liable for any negligence of their servants, however disastrous TORT to innocent persons, except so far as it might happen to constitute a breach of some express undertaking. We have spoken of the rule as universal, but, in the case of one servant of the same employer being injured by the default of another, an unfortunate aberration of the courts, which started about two generations ago from small beginnings, was pushed to extreme results, and led to great hardship. A partial remedy was applied in 1880 by the Employers' Liability Act; and in 1897 a much bolder step was taken by the Workmen's Compensation Act (super- seded by a more comprehensive act in 1906). But, as the common law and the two acts (which proceed on entirely different principles) cover different fields, with a good deal of overlapping, and the acts are full of complicated provisos and exceptions, and. contain very special provisions as to procedure, the improvement in substantial justice has been bought, so far, at the price of great confusion in the form of the law, and considerable difficulty in ascertaining what it is in any but the most obvious cases. The Workmen's Compensation Act includes cases of pure accident, where there is no fault at all, or none that can be proved, and therefore goes beyond the reasons of liability with which the law of torts has to do. In fact, it establishes a kind of compulsory insurance, which can be justified only on wider grounds of policy. A novel and extraordinary exception to the rule of responsibility for agents was made in the case of trade combinations by the Trade Disputes Act 1906. This has no interest for law as a science. There are kinds of cases, on the other hand, in which the law, without aid from legislation, has imposed on occupiers and other persons in analogous positions a duty stricter than that of being answerable for themselves and their servants. Duties of this kind have been called " duties of insuring safety." Gene- rally they extend to having the building, structure, or works in such order, having regard to the nature of the case, as not to create any danger to persons lawfully frequenting, using, or passing by them, which the exercise of reasonable care and skill could have avoided; but in some cases of " extra-hazardous " risk, even proof of all possible diligence — according to English authority, which is not unanimously accepted in America — will not suffice. There has lately been a notable tendency to extend these principles to the duties incurred towards the public by local authorities who undertake public works. Positive duties created by statute are on a similar looting, so far as the breach of them is capable of giving rise to any private right of action. The classification of actionable wrongs is perplexing, not because it is difficult to find a scheme of division, but because it is easier to find many than to adhere to any one of them. We may start either from the character of the defendant's act or omission, with regard to his knowledge, intention and otherwise; or from the character of the harm suffered by the plaintiff. Whichever of these we take as the primary line of distinction, the results can seldom be worked out without calling in the other. Taking first the defendant's position, the widest governing principle is that, apart from various recognized grounds of immunity, a man is answerable for the " natural and probable " consequences of his acts; i.e. such consequences as a reasonable man in his place should have foreseen as probable. Still more is he answer- able for what he did actually foresee and intend. Knowledge of particular facts may be necessary to make particular kinds of conduct wrongful. Such is the rule in the case of fraud and other allied wrongs, including what is rather unhappily called " slander of title," and what is now known as " unfair com- petition " in the matter of trade names and descriptions, short of actual piracy of trade-marks. But where an absolute right to security for a man's person, reputation or goods is interfered with, neither knowledge nor specific intention need be proved. In these cases we trespass altogether at our peril. It is in general the habit of the law to judge acts by their apparent tendency, and not by the actor's feelings or desires. I cannot excuse myself by good motives for infringing another man's rights, whatever other grounds of excuse may be available; xxvn. 3 and it is now settled conversely, though after much doubt, that an act not otherwise unlawful is not, as a rule, made unlawful by being done from an evil motive. This rule was known some time ago to apply to the exercise of rights of property, and such speculative doubt as remained was removed by the decision of the House of Lords in the leading case of Allen v. Flood (1898, A.C. i). We now know that it applies to the exercise of all common rights. The exceptions are very few, and must be explained by exceptional reasons. Indeed, only two are known to the present writer — malicious prose- cution, and the misuse of a " privileged occasion " which would justify the communication of defamatory matter if made in good faith. In each case the wrong lies in the deliberate perversion of a right or privilege allowed for the public good, though the precise extent of the analogy is not certain at present.1 It must be remembered, however, that the presence or absence of personal ill will, and the behaviour of the parties generally, may have an important effect, when liability is proved or admitted, in mitigating or aggravating the amount of damages awarded by juries and allowed by the court to be reasonable. It may likewise be noted, by way of caution, that some problems of criminal law, with which we are not here concerned, require more subtle consideration. However, it is hardly ever safe to assume that the bounds of civil and criminal liability will be found coextensive. Perhaps we may go so far as to say that a man is neither civilly nor criminally liable for a mere omission (not being disobedience to a lawful command which he was bound to obey), unless he has in some way assumed a special duty of doing the act omitted. We have already had to mention the existence of grounds of immunity for acts that would otherwise be wrongful. Such grounds there must be if the law is to be enforced and justice administered at all, and if the business of life is to be carried on with any freedom. Roughly speaking, we find in these cases one of the following conditions: Either the defendant was executing a lawful authority; or he was justified by extraordinary necessity; or he was doing something permitted by legislation for reasons of superior utility, though it may produce damage to others, and either with or without special provisions for compensating damage; or he was exercising a common right in matters open to free use and competition; or the plaintiff had, by consent or otherwise, disabled himself from having any grievance. Pure accident will hardly seem to any one who is not a lawyer to be a special ground of exemption, the question being rather how it could ever be supposed to be a ground of liability. But it was supposed so by many lawyers down to recent times; the reason lying in a history of archaic ideas too long to be traced here. Exercise of common rights is the category where most difficulty arises. Here, in fact, the point at which a man's freedom is limited by his neighbour's has to be fixed by a sense of policy not capable of formal demonstration. As Justice Holmes of the Supreme Court of the United States has said, we allow unlimited trade competition (so long as it is without fraud) though we know that many traders must suffer, and some may be ruined by it, because we hold that free com- petition is worth more to society than its costs. A state with different economic foundations might have a different law on this, as on many other points. This freedom extends not only to the exercise of one's calling, but to choosing with whom and under what conditions one will exercise it. Also the law will not inquire with what motives a common right is exercised ; and this applies to the ordinary rights of an owner in the use of his property 1 It was formerly supposed that an action by a party to a con- tract against a third person for procuring the other party to break his contract was within the same class, i.e. that malice must be proved. But since Allen v. Flood, and the later decision of the House of Lords in Quinn v. Leathern (1901, A.C. 495), this view seems untenable. The ground of action is the intentional violation of an existing legal right; which, however, since 1906, may be practised with impunity in the United Kingdom " in contemplation or furtherance of a trade dispute " : Trade Disputes Act, § 3. 66 TORTOISE as well as to the right of every man to carry on his business.1 Owners and occupiers of immovable property are bound, indeed, to respect one another's convenience within certain limits. The maxim or precept Sic utere tuo ut alienum non laedas does not mean that I must not use my land in any way which can possibly diminish the profit or amenity of my neighbour's. That would be false. It is a warning that both his rights and mine extend beyond being free from actual unlawful entry, and that if either of us takes too literally the more popular but even less accurate maxim, " Every man may do as he will with his own," he will find that there is such a head of the law as nuisance. From the point of view of the plaintiff, as regards the kind of damage suffered by him, actionable wrongs may be divided into four groups. We have some of a strictly personal kind; some which affect ownership and rights analogous to owner- ship; some which extend to the safety, convenience and profit of life generally — in short, to a man's estate in the widest sense; and some which may, according to circumstances, result in damage to person, property or estate, any or all of them. Per- sonal wrongs touching a man's body or honour are assault, false imprisonment, seduction or " enticing away " of members of his family. Wrongs to property are trespass to land or goods, " conversion " of goods (i.e. wrongful assumption of dominion over them), disturbance of easements and other individual rights in property not amounting to exclusive possession. Tres- pass is essentially a wrong to possession; but with the aid of actions " on the case " the ground has been practically covered. Then there are infringements of incorporeal rights which, though not the subject of trespass proper, are exclusive rights of enjoyment and have many incidents of ownership. Actions, in some cases expressly given by statute, lie for the piracy of copyright, patents and trade marks. Wrongs to a man's estate in the larger sense above noted are defamation (not a strictly personal wrong, because according to English common law the temporal damage, not the insult, is, rightly or wrongly, made the ground of action); deceit, so-called "slander of title" and fraudulent trade competition, which are really varieties of deceit; malicious prosecution; and nuisance, which, though most important as affecting the enjoyment of property, is not considered in that relation only. Finally, we have the results of negligence and omission to perform special duties regarding the safety of one's neighbours or customers, or of the public, which may affect person, property, or estate generally. The law of wrongs is made to do a great deal of work which, in a system less dependent on historical conditions, we should expect to find done by the law of property. We can claim or reclaim our movable goods only by complaining of a wrong done to our possession or our right to possess. There is no direct assertion of ownership like the Roman vindicatio. The law of negligence, with the refined discussions of the test and measure of liability which it has introduced, is wholly modern; and the same may be said of the present working law of nuisance, 1 The rule that a man's motives for exercising his common rights are not examinable involves the consequence that advising or procuring another, who is a free agent, to do an act of this kind can, a fortiori, not be an actionable wrong at the suit of a third person who is damnified by the act, and that whatever the adviser's motives may be. This appears to be included in the decision of the House of Lords in Allen v. Flood. That decision, though not binding in any American court, is approved and followed in most American jurisdictions. It is otherwise where a system of coercion is exercised on a man's workmen or customers in order to injure him in his business. The extension of immunity to such conduct would destroy the value of the common right which the law pro- tects: Quinn v. Leathern. The coercion need not be physical, and the wrong as a whole may be made up of acts none of which taken alone would be a cause of action. In this point there is nothing novel, for it is so in almost every case of nuisance. Conspiracy is naturally a frequent element in such cases, but it does not appear to be necessary; if it were, millionaires and corporations might exceed the bounds of lawful competition with impunity whenever they were strong enough. The reasons given in Quinn v. Leathern are many and various, but the decision is quite consistent with Allen v. Flood. However, the Trade Disputes Act will probably have its intended effect of reducing the law on this head to relative insignificance in England. though the term is of respectable antiquity. Most recent of all is the rubric of " unfair competition," which is fast acquiring great importance. It will be observed that the English law of torts answers approximately in its purpose and contents to the Roman law of obligations ex delicto and' quasi ex delicto. When we have allowed for the peculiar treatment of rights of property in the common law, and remembered that, according to one plausible theory, the Roman law of possession itself is closely connected in its origin with the law of delicts, we shall find the corre- spondence at least as close as might be expected a priori. Nor is the correspondence to be explained by borrowing, for this branch of the common law seems to owe less to the classical Roman or medieval canon law than any other. Some few misunderstood Roman maxims have done considerable harm in detail, but the principles have been worked out in all but complete independence. A list of modern books and monographs will be found at the end of the article on " Torts " by the present writer in the Encyclo- paedia of the Laws of England (2nd ed.). Among recent editions of works on the law of torts and new publications the following may be mentioned here: Addison, by W. E. Gordon and W. H. Griffith (8th ed., 1906); Clerk and Lindsell, by Wyatt Paine (4th ed., 1906); Pollock (8th ed., 1908); Salmond, The Law of Torts (and ed., 1910). In America: Burdick, The Law of Torts (1905); Street, The Foundations of Legal Liability (1906), 3 vols. of which vol. i. is on Tort. (F. Po.) TORTOISE. Of the three names generally used for this order of reptiles, viz. tortoise, turtle and terrapin, the first is derived from the Old French word tortis, i.e. twisted, and was probably applied first to the common European species on account of its curiously bent forelegs. Turtle is believed to be a corruption of the same word, but the origin of the name terrapin is un- known: since the time of the navigators of the i6th century it has been in general use for fresh-water species of the tropics, and especially for those of the New World. The name tortoise is now generally applied to the terrestrial members of this group of animals, and that of turtle to those which live in the sea or pass a great part of their existence in fresh water. They consti- tute one of the orders of reptiles, the Chelonia: toothless reptiles, with well developed limbs, with a dorsal and a ventral shell composed of numerous bony plates, large firmly fixed quadrates, a longitudinal anal opening and an unpaired copulatory organ. The whole shell consists of the dorsal, more or less convex carapace and the ventral plastron, both portions being joined laterally by the so-called bridge. The carapace is (with the exception of Sphargis) formed by dermal ossifications which are arranged in regular series, viz. a median row (l nuchal, mostly 8 neurals and 1-3 supracaudal or pygal plates), a right and left row of costal plates which surround and partly replace the ribs, and a consider- able number (about 1 1 pairs) of marginal plates. The plas- tron consists of usually 9, rarely II, dermal bones, viz. paired epi-, hyo-, hypo- and xiphi-plastral plates and the unpaired endo-plastral ; the latter is homologous with the interclavicle, the epi-plastra with the clavicles, the rest with so-called abdominal ribs of other reptiles. In most Chelonians the bony shell is covered with a hard epi- dermal coat, which is divided into large shields, commonly called " tortoiseshell." These horny shields or scutes do not correspond in numbers and extent with the underlying bones, although there is a general, vague resemblance in their arrangement; for instance, there is a neural, a paired costal and a paired marginal series. The terminology may be learned from the accompanying illus- trations (figs, i and 2). The integuments of the head, neck, tail and limbs are either soft and smooth or scaly or tubercular, frequently with small osseous nuclei. All the bones of the skull are suturally united. The dentary portion of the mandible consists of one piece only, both halves being completely fused together. The pectoral arch remains separate in the median line ; it consists of the coracoids, which slope backwards, and the scapulae, which stand upright and often abut against the inside of the first pair of costal plates. Near the glenpid cavity for the humerus arises from the scapula a long process which is directed transversely towards its fellow ; it represents the acromial process of other vertebrates, although so much enlarged, and is neither the precoracoid, nor the clavicle, as stated by the thought- less. The tail is still best developed in the Chelydridae, shortest in the Trionychoidea. Since it contains the large copulatory organ, it is less reduced in the males. No Chelonians possess the slightest TORTOISE 67 traces of teeth, but their jaws are provided with horny sheaths, with hard and sharp edges, forming a beak. The number of Chelonians known at present may be estimated at about 200, the fresh-water species being far the most numerous, and are abundant in well-watered districts of the tropical and sub-tropical zones. Their number and variety decrease beyond the tropics, and in the north they disappear entirely about the 5<3th parallel in the western and about the 56th in the eastern hemisphere, whilst in the southern hemisphere the terrestrial forms seem to advance to 36° S. only. The marine turtles, which are spread over the whole of the equatorial and sub-tropical seas, sometimes stray beyond those limits. As in other orders FIGS. I, 2. — Shell of Testudo pardalis, to show the divisions of the integument, which are marked by entire lines, and of the osseous carapace, these being marked by dotted lines. Fig. I, Upper or dorsal aspect. Fig. 2, Lower or ventral aspect. Epidermal shields: — co, Costals. t>, Vertebrals. m, Marginals. g, Gulars. pg, Postgulars or numerals. p. Pectorals. ab, Abdominals. pa, Preanals or femorals. an, Anals. Bones of the Carapace: — co1, Costals. ne, Neurals. nu, Nuchal. py, Pygals. ml. Marginals. ent, Entoplastron. ep, Epiplastron. hyo, Hyoplastron. hyp, Hypoplastron. xyp, Xiphiplastron. of reptiles, the most specialized and the largest forms are restricted to the tropics (with the exception of Macroclemmys) ; but, unlike lizards or snakes, Chelonians are unable to exist in sterile districts or at great altitudes. They show a great divergence in their mode of life — some living constantly on land, others having partly terrestrial partly aquatic habits, others again rarely leaving the water or the sea. The first-mentioned, the land tortoises proper, have short club-shaped feet with blunt claws, and a very convex, heavy, completely ossified shell. In the fresh-water forms the joints of the limb bones are much more mobile, the digits distinct, armed with sharp claws, and united by a membrane or web; their shell is less convex, and is flattened, and more or less extensive areas may remain unossified, or transparent windows are formed with age, for instance in Batagur. As a rule, the degree of development of the interdigital web and of convexity of the shell indicates the prevalence of aquatic or terrestrial habits of a species of terrapin. Finally, the marine turtles have paddle-shaped limbs resembling those of Cetaceans. Land tortoises are sufficiently protected by their carapace, and therefore have no need of any special modification of structure by means of which their appearance would be assimi- lated to the surroundings and thus give them additional security from their enemies. These, however, are few in number. On the other hand, among the carnivorous terrapins and fresh- water turtles instances of protective resemblance are not scarce, and may even attain to a high degree of specialization, as in Chelys, the matamata. The colours of land tortoises are generally plain, or in yellow and brown patterns, whilst those of many terrapins are singularly varied, bright and beautiful, especially in the very young, but all this beauty is lost in the adult of many species. Chelonians are diurnal animals; only a few are active during the night, habitually or on special occasions, as, for instance, during oviposition. Land tortoises are slow in all their move- ments, but all kinds living in water can execute rapid motions, either to seize their prey or to escape from danger. All Chelonians are stationary, residing throughout the year in the same locality, with the exception of the marine turtles, which periodically migrate to their breeding-stations. Species inhabiting temperate regions hibernate. Land tortoises, a few terrapins, and some of the marine turtles are herbivorous, the others carnivorous, their prey con- sisting chiefly of fish, frogs, molluscs, and other small aquatic animals; some, e.g. Clemmys insculpta and Cistudo Carolina, have a mixed vegetable and animal diet. All Chelonians are oviparous, and the eggs are generally covered with a hard shell, mostly elliptical, rarely quite round, as in the case of the marine turtles. The various modifications, and also the not uncommon individual variations, in the composition of the carapace plates and the number and disposition of the shields, are very significant. They show an unmistakable tendency towards reduction in numbers, a concentration and simplification of the shell and its covering shields. We can to a certain extent reconstruct a generalized ancestral tortoise and thereby narrow the wide gap which separates the Chelonia from every other reptilian order. The early Chelonians possessed most likely more than five longitudinal dorsal rows of plates. The presence of several small supramarginal shields in Macroclemmys may be an indication that the total number of longitudinal rows was originally at least seven. The number of transverse rows, both of plates and shields, was also greater. We can account for at least twelve median plates and as many pairs of marginals, but for only eieht median and eight pairs of costal shields (individual variations observed in Thalassochelys) . It stands to reason that originally each trunk metamere had its full complement of plates and shields ; consequently that about twelve trunk metameres partook in the formation of the shell, which, with subsequent shortening and broadening of the trunk, has under- gone considerable concentration and reduction, a process which has reduced the costal plates to seven pairs in the American species of Trionyx, has completely abolished the neural plates of some Chelydidae, and has brought down the costal shields to four pairs in the majority of recent Chelonians. In several species of Testudo the little nuchal shield is suppressed, thereby reducing the unpaired median shields to five. The complete absence of shields in the Triony- chidae and in Carettochelys is also due to a secondary process, which, however, has proceeded in a different way. Classification of Chelonia. H. Stannius in 1854 clearly separated the Trionychoidea from the rest. E. D. Cope, in 1870, distinguished between Pleurodira and Cryptodira according to whether the neck, Sept) or SetpTj, is bent sidewards, or hidden by being withdrawn in an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane; he also separated Sphargis as Athecae from all the other Chelonians, for which L. Dollo, in 1886, proposed the term Thecophora. These terms are most unfortunate, misleading. Athecae (from OitKij, shell) has reference to the absence of a horny shell-covering in the leathery turtle; but since the same character applies to Trionychoidea and to Carettochelys, nobody can guess that 68 TORTOISE the term Athecae in Dollo's sense refers to the fact that the shell of the leathery turtle is not homologous with the typical shell or 61)107 of the other Chelonians. The grouping of the latter into families recognizable by chiefly internal, skeletal characters has been effected by G. A. Boulenger. For practical purposes the following " key " is preferable to those taxonomic characters which are mentioned in the descriptions of the different families. The relationships between them may be indicated as follows: — f Athecae Sphargidae ("Pelomedusidae Chelonia-j fPleurodira J. Chelydidae Carettochelydidae rChelydridae — Derma- temydidae-Cinosternida [Thecophora Cryptodira -I Platysternidae Testudinidae Chelonidae Neck bending sideways under the shell Trionychoidea Key to the Families of Chelonia. Shell covered with horny shields. Digits distinct, with five or four claws. Pectoral shields separated from the mar- ginals by inframarginals. Tail long and crested. Plastron small and cruciform ....... Chelydridae Tail long, covered with rings of shields. Plastron large Platysternidae _ .. , ( Dermatemydidae Tail short { Cinosternidae Pectoral shields in contact with the mar- ginals. Plastral shields 1 1 or 12, without an inter- gular. Neck retractile in an S-shaped vertical curve Testudinidae Plastral shields 13, an intergular being present. ( Chelydidae \ Pelomedusidae Limbs paddle-shaped, with one or two claws Chelonidae Shell without horny shields, covered with soft leathery skin. Digits distinct, broadly webbed, but with only three claws Trionychoidea Limbs paddle-shaped. Shell composed of regular series of bony plates. Two claws Carettochelydidae Shell composed of very many small plates arranged like mosaic. No claws . . Sphargidae. Sub-order I. Athecae. — The shell consists of a mosaic of numerous small polygonal osseous plates and is covered with leathery skin without any horny shields. The limbs are transformed into paddles, without claws. Marine. Sole representative Sphargis or Derma- tochelys coriacea, the leathery turtle or luth ; it is the largest of living Chelonians, surpassing 6 ft. in length, has a wide distribution over all the intertropical seas, but is very rare everywhere; a few stragglers have appeared as far north as the coasts of Long Island, and those of Great Britain, Holland and France. It is a curious fact that only adults and young, but none of intermediate size, happen to be known. This creature shows many im- portant features. The vertebrae and ribs are not fused with, but remain free from, the cara- pace, and this is fundamentally different from and not homologous with that of other Chelon- ians. O. P. Hay has suggested that the mosaic polygonal components of the shell of Sphargis are, so to speak, an earlier generation of osteo- dermal plates than the fewer and larger plates of the Thecophora, which in them fuse with the neural arches and the ribs. Sphargis has, how- ever, the later category in the plastron and in its first neural or nuchal plate. If this suggestion is correct, this turtle has either lost or perhaps never had developed the horny shields. The many mosaic plates comprise larger plates which form an unpaired median, two pairs of other dorsal, a lateral and three pairs of ventral series or ridges ; thirteen, or when the inner ventral pair fuses, twelve pairs in all. The skull, excellently studied by J. F. van Bemmelen, much resembles that of Chelone, but so-called epipterygoids are absent; further, the pterygoids, instead of sending lateral arms to the jugals and maxillaries, are widely separated from these bones by the palatines, and these do not at all ventrally roof over the choanae. The position of Sphargis in the system is still a moot question. G. A. Boulenger looks upon it as the sole remnant of a primitive group in opposition to all the other recent Chelonia; G. Baur con- sidered it the most specialized descendant of the Chelonidae, a FIG. 3. — A portion of the Osseous Plates of the Carapace of Sphargis coriacea, showing three large keeled plates of one of the longitudinal ridges of the carapace, with a number of the small irregular plates on either side of them. view which has been supported by W. Dames, E. C. Case, and to a certain extent by J. F. van Bemmelen. For literature, &c., see L. Dollo, Bull. S. R. Bruxelles (Fevrier 4, 1901). Sub-order II. Thecophora. — The bony shell is composed of several longitudinal series of plates (on the dorsal side a median or neural, a paired lateral or costal series, and marginal plates). With few exceptions this shell is covered with large horny scutes or shields. Super-family I. Cryptodira. — The neck, if retractile, bends in an S-shaped curve in a vertical plane. The pelvis is not fused with the shell, and this is covered with large horny shields, except in Carettochelys. Family I . Chelydridae. — The plastron is rather narrow, and cross- shaped ; the bridge is very narrow and is covered by a pair of shields, the displaced abdominals, which are separated from the marginals by a few inframarginals. The limbs, neck and head are so stout that they cannot completely be withdrawn into the shell. The tail is very long. Only two genera with three species, confined to America. Chelydra serpentina, the " snapping turtle," ranging from the Canadian lakes through the United States east of the Rockies ; Ecuador. closely allied is C. rossignoni of Central America and Macroclemmys temmincki, the " alligator turtle," is the largest known fresh- water Chelonian, its shell growing to a length FIG. 4. — The Snapping Turtle (Chelydra serpentina). of 3 ft. It is characterized by the three series of strong prominent keels ajong the back; it inhabits the whole basin of the Mississippi and Missouri rivers. Family 2. Dermatemydidae. — The pectoral shields are widely separated from the marginals by inframarginals, the gulars are small or absent, and the tail is extremely short. Only a few species, in Central America. The plastron is composed of nine plates. The nuchal plate has a pair of rib-like processes like those of the Chelydridae. One or more of the posterior costal plates meet in the middle line. The shell of these aquatic, broadly web-fingered tortoises, is very flat and the covering shields are thin. They feed TORTOISE 69 upon leaves, grass and especially fruit. Staurotypus, e.g. salvini with 23, Dermalemys, e.g. mawi, with 25 marginal shields. Family 3. Cinosternidae. — Closely allied to the two previous families from which Cinosternum, the only genus, differs chiefly by the absence of the endo-plastral plate. Inframarginals are present. The nuchal plate has a pair of rib-like processes. The neural plates are interrupted by the meeting of several pairs of the costal plates. Twenty-three marginal shields. In some species the skin of the legs and neck is so baggy that these parts slip in, the skin rolling off, when such a turtle withdraws into its shell. In some the plastron is hinged and the creature can shut itself up tightly, e.g. C. leucostoma of Mexico; in others the plastron leaves gaps, or it is narrow and without hinges, e.g. C. odoratum, the mud turtle or stinkpot terrapin of the eastern half of North America. About a dozen species, mostly Central American. Family 4. Platysternidae. — Platysternum megacephalum, the only species, from Burma to southern China. The total length of these thick-headed, very long-tailed turtles is about I ft., only 5 in. belonging to the shell. The plastron is large, oblong, not cruci- form, composed of nine plates. The nuchal is devoid of rib-like processes. A unique arrangement is that the jugals are completely shut off from the orbits owing to the meeting of the post-frontals with the maxillaries. Family 5. Testudinidae. — The shell is always covered with well- developed shields; those which cover the plastral bridge are in direct contact with the marginals. The plastron is composed of nine bones. The digits have four or five claws. The neck is completely retractile. This family contains the majority of tortoises, divided into as many as 20 genera. These, starting with Entys as the least special- ized, can be arranged in two main diverging lines, one culminating in the thoroughly aquatic Batagur, the other in the exclusively terrestrial forms. Emys, with the plastron movably united to the carapace; with well-webbed limbs, amphibious. E. orbicularis or europaea was, towards the end of the Pleistocene period, distributed over a great part of middle Europe, remains occurring in the peat of England, Belgium, Denmark and Sweden ; it is now withdrawing eastwards, being restricted in Germany to isolated localities east of Berlin, but it reoccurs in Poland and Russia, whence it extends into western Asia ; it is common in south Europe. The other species, E. blandingi, lives in Canada and the north-eastern states of the Union. Clemmys with the plastron immovably united to the cara- §ace; temperate holarctic region, e.g. C. caspica, C. leprosa in pain and Morocco; C. insculpta, in north-east America. Mala- coclemmys with a few species in North America, e.g. M. terrapin, the much prized " diamond-back. " Chrysemys with many American species, e.g. Ch. picta, the " painted terrapin " and C. concinna, most of them very handsomely coloured and marked when still young. Batagur and Kachuga in the Indian sub-region. Cistudo Carolina, the box tortoise of North America, with the plastron divided into an anterior and a posterior movable lobe, so that the creature can shut itself up completely. Although essen- tially by its internal structure a water tortoise, it has become absolutely terrestrial in habits, and herewith agree the high- backed instead of depressed shell, the short webless fingers and its general coloration. It has a mixed diet. The eyes of the males are red, those of the females are brown. From Long Island to Mexico. Cinixys, e.g. belliana of tropical Africa, has the posterior portion of the carapace movably hinged. Pyxis arachnoides of Madagascar has the front-lobe of the plastron hinged. Testudo, the main genus, with about 40 species, is cosmopolitan in tropical and sub-tropical countries, with the exception of the whole of the Australian and Malay countries; most of the species are African. T. graeca, in Mediterranean countries and islands. T. marginata in Greece with the posterior margin of the carapace much flanged or serrated, and T. ibera or mauritanica from Morocco to Persia; both differ from T. graeca by an unpaired supracaudal, marginal shield, and by the possession of a strong, conical, horny tubercle on the hinder surface of the thigh. With age the posterior portion of the plastron develops a transverse ligamentous hinge. T. polyphemus, the " gopher " of southern United States, lives in pairs in self-dug burrows. T. labulata is one of the few South American terrestrial tortoises. Of great interest are the so-called gigantic land tortoises. In former epochs truly gigantic species of the genus Testudo had a wide and probably more continuous distribution. There was T. atlas, of the Pliocene of the Sivalik hills with a skull nearly 8 in. long, but the shell probably measured not more than 6 ft. in length, the restored specimen in the Natural History Museum at South Kensington being exaggerated. T. perpigniana of Pliocene France was also large. Large land tortoises, with a length of shell of more than 2 ft., became restricted to two widely separated regions of the world, viz. the Galapagos Islands (called thus after the Spanish galapago, i.e. tortoise), and islands in the western Indian Ocean viz. the Mascarenes (Bourbon, Mauritius and Rodriguez) and Aldabra. When they became extinct in Madagascar is not known, but T. grandidieri was a very large kind, of apparently very recent date. At the time of their discovery those smaller islands were un- inhabited by man or any predaceous mammal. It was on these peaceful islands that land tortoises lived in great numbers; with plenty of food there was nothing for them to do but to feed, to propagate, to grow and to vary. Most of the islands were or are inhabited by one or more typical, local forms. As they provided, like the equally ill-fated dodo and solitaire, a welcome provision of excellent meat, ships carried them about, to be slaughtered as occasion required, and soon almost exterminated them; some were occasionally liberated on other islands, for instance, on the Seychelles and on the Chagos, or they were left as presents, in Ceylon, Java or on Rotuma near the Fijis. Thus it has come to pass that the few survivors have been very much scattered. The small genuine stock at Aldabra is now under government protection, in a way. A large male of T. gigantea or elephanlina or hololissa or ponderosa, was brought to London and weighed 870 ft; another specimen had in 1908 been living at St Helena for more than one hundred years. A specimen of T. daudini, native of the South Island of Aldabra, was known for many years on Egmont Island, one of the Chagos group, then it was taken to Mauritius and then to England, where of course it soon died ; its shell measures 55 in. in a straight line, and it weighed 560 ft. The type specimen of T. sumeirei, supposed to have come originally from the Seychelles, was in 1908 still kept in the barrack grounds at Port Louis, Mauri- tius, and had been known as a large tortoise for about 1 50 years. T. vosmaeri was a very thin-shelled species in Rodriguez. Of the Galapagos species T. ephippium still survives on Duncan Island; T. abingdoni lived on Abingdon Island; of T. elephanlopus or vicina, G. Baur still collected 21 specimens in 1893 on Albemarle Island. One monster of this kind is said to have measured 56 in. over the curve of the carapace, with a skull a little more than 7 in. in length. All the Galapagos species are remarkable for their comparatively small head and the very long neck, which is much larger and more slender than that of the eastern species. Family 6. Chelonidae. Marine turtles, with only two recent genera, with three widely distributed species. The limbs are paddle- shaped, with only one or two claws, and the shell is covered with horny shields. The neck is short and incompletely retractile. The parietals, post-frontals, squamosals, quadrato-jugals, and jugals are much expanded and form an additional or false roof over the temporal region of the skull. The Chelonidae are a highly specialized offshoot of the Cryptodira, adapted to marine life. Fundamentally they agree most with the Testudinidae, and there is nothing primitive about them except that they still possess complete series of inframarginal shields. Chelone, with only 4 pairs of costal shields, with 5 neurals and a broad nuchal. C. mydas s. viridis, the " green or edible turtle," FIG. 5. — Green Turtle (Chelone mydas). has, when adult, a nearly smooth shell. It attains a length of nearly 4 ft., and may then weigh more than three hundredweight. Their food consists of algae, and of Zostera marina. Their capture forms a regular pursuit wherever they occur in any numbers. Comparatively few are caught in the open sea, others in staked nets, but the majority are intercepted at well-known periods and localities where they go ashore to deposit their eggs. These are round, with a parchment-like shell and buried in the sand, above the high-tide mark, as many as 100 to 250 being laid by one female. They are eagerly searched for and eaten. The famous turtle- soup is made not only of the meat and the fat, but also from the thick and gelatinous layer of subcutaneous tissue which lines the inside of the shell. Only the females are eaten ; the males, recogniz- able by the longer tail, are rejected at the London market. This species inhabits the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans. C. imbricata, the " hawksbill turtle. " The shields are thick, strongly overlapping each other from before backwards, but in old specimens the shields lose their keel, flatten and become juxta- posed. The horny cover of the upper jaw forms a hooked beak. This species lives upon fish and molluscs and is not eaten; but is much persecuted for the horny shields which yield the 7o TORTOISE " tortoise-shell, " so far as this is not a fraudulent imitation. When heated in oil, or boiled, the shields (which singly are not thick enough to be manufactured into larger articles) can be welded together under pressure and be given any desired shape. The " hawksbill " FIG. 6. — Hawksbill Turtle (Chelone imbricata). ranges over all the tropical and sub-tropical seas and scarcely reaches 3 ft. in length, but such a shell yields up to 8 Ib of tortoiseshell. Thalassochelys caretla, the " loggerhead, " has normally five pairs of costal shields, but whilst the number of shields in the genus Chelone is very constant, that of the loggerhead varies individually to an astonishing extent. The greatest number of neurals ob- served, and counting the nuchal as the first, is 8, and 8 pairs of costal, in all 24; the lowest numbers are 6 neurals with 5 pairs of costals; odd costals are frequent. The most interesting facts are that some of the supernumerary shields are much smaller than the others, sometimes mere vestiges in all stages of gradual suppression, and that the abnormalities are much more common in babies and small specimens than in adults. The importance of these ortho- genetic variations has been discussed by H. Gadow in A. Willey's Zoolog. Results, pt. iii. p. 207-222, pis. 24, 25 (Cambridge 1899). FIG. 7. — Loggerhead (Thalassochelys caretta). The " loggerhead " is carnivorous, feeding on fish, molluscs and crustaceans, and is not esteemed as food. A great part of the turtle-oil which finds its way into the market is obtained from it; its tortoiseshell is of an inferior quality. Besides all the inter- tropical seas it inhabits the Mediterranean, and is an accidental visitor of the western coasts of Europe. The old specimen captured on the Dutch coast in 1894 contained the enormous number of 1150 eggs. Super-family 2. Pleurodira. — The long neck bends laterally and is tucked away between the anterior portion of the carapace and the plastron. The dorsal and ventral ends of the pelvis are anchylosed to the shell. Fresh-water tortoises of South America, Australia, Africa and Madagascar. FIG. 8. — The Matamata (Chelys fimbriata) with side view of head, and separate view of plastron. Family I . Pelomedusidae. — Neck completely retractile. ' which the nuchal is wanting. Carapace covered with horny shields, of which the nuchal is wanting. Plastron composed of II plates. With 24 marginal and 13 plastral shields, FIG. 9. — Lower view of Trionyx euphratica. inclusive of a conspicuous intergular. Sternolhaerus in Africa and Madagascar. Pelomedusa galeata in Madagascar and from the Cape to the Sinaitic peninsula. Podocnemis is common in tropical South America, e.g. P. expansa of Brazilian rivers, noteworthy for TORTOISESHELL— TORTONA the millions of eggs which are, or were, annually collected for the sake of their oil. Bates (The Naturalist on the River Amazon) gives a most interesting account of these turtles, which are entirely frugivorous. Family 2. Chelydidae. — The neck, when bent, remains partly exposed. Shell covered with shields. Plastron composed of 9 Elates, but covered with 13 shields. This family, still represented y nearly 30 species, with 8 genera, is found in South America and in Australia. Chelys fimbriata, the " matamata " in the rivers of Guiana and North Brazil; total length about 3 ft.; with animal diet. Hydromedusa, e.g. tectifera, with very long neck, in Brazil, much resembling Chelodina, e.g. longicollis of the Australian region. Family 3. Carettochelydidae. — Carettochelys insculpta, the only species, in the Fly river of New Guinea; still imperfectly known. This peculiar turtle seems to stand in the same relation to the Chely- didae and to the Trionychidae as do the Chelonidae to the Testu- dinidae by the transformation of the limbs into paddles with only two claws, and the complete reduction of the horny shields upon the shell, which is covered with soft skin. The plastron is composed of 9 plates; the 6 neural plates are all separated from one another by the costals. The premaxilla is single, as elsewhere only in FIG. 10. — Upper view of the Turtle of the Euphrates (Trionyx euphratica). Chelys and in the Trionychidae. The neck is short and non-retractile. Length of shell about 18 in. Super-family 3. Trionychoidea. — The shell is very flat and much smaller than the body, and covered with soft leathery skin, but traces of horny structures are still represented, especially in the young of some species, by numerous scattered little spikes on the back of the shell and even on the soft parts of the back. The limbs are short, broadly webbed and only the three inner digits are pro- vided with claws. Head and neck are retractile, bending in a sig- moid curve in a vertical plane. The jaws are concealed by soft lip-like flaps and the nose forms a short soft proboscis. The tem- poral region is not covered in by any arches; the quadrate is trumpet- shaped as in the Chelydidae, but the jugular arch is complete. The pelvis is not anchylosed to the shell. The carapace is much reduced in size, the ribs extending beyond the costal plates, and there are no marginals; except in the African Cyclanorbts the neural plates form a continuous series. All the nine elements of the plastron are deficient and but very loosely connected with each other. Most of these reductions in the skeletal and tegumentary armature are the result of life in muddy waters, in the bottom of which these creatures bury themselves with only the head exposed. They feed upon aquatic animals; those which are partial to hard- shelled molluscs soon wear down the sharp horny edges of the jaws, and thick horny crushing pads are developed in their stead. They only crawl upon land in order to lay their round brittle eggs. Trionyxes inhabit the rivers of Asia, Africa and North America. Trionyx ferox, the " soft-shelled turtle," in the whole of the Missis- sippi basin and in the chain of the great northern lakes. T. triunguis in Africa, the largest species, with a length of shell of 3 ft. T. hurum and T. gangeticus are the commonest Indian species. The young are ornamented with two or three pairs of large, round, ocellated spots on the back. (H. F. G.) TORTOISESHELL. The tortoiseshell of commerce consists of the epidermic plates covering the bony carapace of the hawksbill turtle, Chelonia imbricata, the smallest of the sea turtles. The plates of the back or carapace, technically called the head, are 13 in number, 5 occupying the centre, flanked by 4 on each side. These overlap each other to the extent of one-third of their whole size, and hence they attain a large size, reaching in the largest to 8 in. by 13 in., and weighing as much as 9 oz. The carapace has also 24 marginal pieces, called hoofs or claws, forming a serrated edge round it; but these, with the plates of the plastron, or belly, are of inferior value. The plates of tortoiseshell consist of horny matter, but they are harder, more brittle, and less fibrous than ordinary horn. Their value depends on the rich mottled colours they display — a warm translucent yellow, dashed and spotted with rich brown tints — and on the high polish they take and retain. The finest tortoiseshell is obtained from the Eastern Archipelago, par- ticularly from the east coast of Celebes to New Guinea; but the creature is found and tortoiseshell obtained from all tropical coasts, large supplies coming from the West Indian Islands and Brazil. Tortoiseshell is worked precisely as horn; but, owing to the high value of the material, care is taken to prevent any waste in its working. The plates, as separated by heat from the bony skeleton, are keeled, curved, and irregular in form. They are first flattened by heat and pressure, and superficial inequalities are rasped away. Being harder and more brittle than horn, tortoiseshell requires careful treatment in moulding it into any form, and as high heat tends to darken and obscure the material it is treated at as low a heat as practicable. For many purposes it is necessary to increase the thickness or to add to the superficial size of tortoiseshell, and this is readily done by careful cleaning and rasping of the surfaces to be united, softening the plates in boiling water or sometimes by dry heat, and then pressing them tightly together by means of heated pincers or a vice. The heat softens and liquefies a superficial film of the horny material, and that with the pressure effects a perfect union of the surfaces brought together. Heat and pressure are also employed to mould the substance into boxes and the numerous artificial forms into which it is made up. Tortoiseshell has been a prized ornamental material from very early times. It was one of the highly esteemed treasures of the Far East brought to ancient Rome by way of Egypt, and it was eagerly sought by wealthy Romans as a veneer for their rich furniture. In modern times it is most characteristically used in the elaborate inlaying of cabinet-work known as buhl furniture, and in com- bination with silver for toilet articles. It is also employed as a veneer for small boxes and frames. It is cut into combs, moulded into snuff-boxes and other small boxes, formed into knife-handles, and worked up into many other similar minor articles. The plates from certain other tortoises, known commercially as turtle-shell, possess a certain industrial value, but they are either opaque or soft and leathery, and cannot be mistaken for tortoiseshell. A close imitation of tortoiseshell can be made by staining translucent horn or by varieties of celluloid. TORTOLI, a town and episcopal see of Sardinia, on the east coast, 140 m. N.N.E. of Cagliari by rail (55 m. direct). Pop. (1901), 2105. It lies 60 ft. above sea-level to the south-west of a large lagoon, which renders it unhealthy. The harbour is 2\ m. to the east, and serves for the export of the wine and agricultural produce of the Ogliastra. A little to the south of Tortoli was the station of Sulci on the Roman coast road, known to us only from the itineraries. TORTONA (anc. Dertona), a town and episcopal see of Pied- mont, Italy, in the province of Alessandria, from which it is 14 m. E. by rail, on the right bank of the Scrivia, at the northern foot of the Apennines, 394 ft. above sea-level. Pop. (1901), 11,308 (town); 17,419 (commune). Tortona is on the main line from Milan to Genoa; from it a main line runs to Alessandria, a branch to Castelnuovo Scrivia, and a steam tramway to Sale. Its fortifications were destroyed by the French after Marengo (1799); the ramparts are now turned into shady TORTOSA— TORTURE promenades. The cathedral, erected by Philip II., contains a remarkably fine Roman sarcophagus of the Christian period. Silk- weaving, tanning and hat-making are the chief industries; and there is some trade in wine and grain. Dertona, which may have become a Roman colony as early as the 2nd century B.C. and certainly did so under Augustus, is spoken of by Strabo as one of the most important towns of Liguria. It stood at the point of divergence of the Via Postumia (see LIGURIA) and the Via Aemilia, while a branch road ran hence to Pollentia. A number of ancient inscriptions and other objects have been found here. In the middle ages Tortona was zealously attached to the Guelphs, on which account it was twice laid waste by Frederick Barbarossa, in 1 155 and 1163. (T. As.) TORTOSA, a fortified city of north-east Spain, in the province of Tarragona; 40 m. by rail W.S.W. of the city of Tarragona, on the river Ebro 22 m. above its mouth. Pop. (1900), 24,452. Tortosa is for the most part an old walled town on the left bank of the river, with narrow, crooked and ill-paved streets, in which the houses are lofty and massively built of granite. But some parts of the old town have been rebuilt, and there is a modern suburb on the opposite side of the Ebro. The slope on which old Tortosa stands is crowned with an ancient castle, which has been restored and converted into barracks and a hospital. All the fortifications are obsolete. The cathedral occupies the site of a Moorish mosque built in 914. The present structure, which dates from 1347, has its Gothic character disguised by a classical facade with Ionic pillars and much tasteless modernization. The stalls in the choir, carved by Cristobal de Salamanca in 1588-1593, and the sculpture of the pulpits, as well as the iron-work of the choir-railing and some of the precious marbles with which the chapels are adorned, deserve notice. The other public buildings include an episcopal palace, a town- hall and numerous churches. There are manufactures of paper, hats, leather, ropes, porcelain, majolica, soap, spirits, and ornaments made of palm leaves and grasses. There is an important fishery in the river, and the harbour is accessible to vessels of 100 tons burden. Corn, wine, oil, wool, silk, fruits and liquorice (a speciality of the district) are exported. The city is connected with Barcelona and Valencia by the coast railway, and with Saragossa by the Ebro valley line; it is also the terminus of a railway to San Carlos de la Rapita on the Mediterranean. Near Tortosa are rich quarries of marble and alabaster. Tortosa, the Derlosa of Strabo and the Colonia Julia Augusta Dertosa of numerous coins, was a city of the Ilercaones in Hispania Tarraconensis. Under the Moors it was of great im- portance as the key of the Ebro valley. It was taken by Louis the Pious in 811 (after an unsuccessful siege two years before), but was soon recaptured. Having become a haunt of pirates, and exceedingly injurious to Italian commerce, it was made the object of a crusade proclaimed by Pope Eugenius III. in 1148, and was captured by Ramon Berenguer IV., count of Barcelona, assisted by Templars, Pisans and Genoese. An attempt to recapture the city in 1149 was defeated by the heroism of the women, who were thenceforth empowered by the count to wear the red sash of the Order of La Hacha (The Axe), to import their clothes free of duty, and to precede their bridegrooms at weddings. Tortosa fell into the hands of the duke of Orleans in 1708; during the Peninsular War it surrendered in 1811 to the French under Suchet, who held it till 1814. TORTURE (from Lat. torquere, to twist), the general name for innumerable modes of inflicting pain which have been from time to time devised by the perverted ingenuity of man, and especially for those employed in a legal aspect by the civilized nations of antiquity and of modern Europe. From this point of view torture was always inflicted for one of two purposes: (i) As a means of eliciting evidence from a witness or from an accused person either before or after condemnation; (2) as a part of the punishment. The second was the earlier use, its function as a means of evidence arising when rules were gradually formulated by the experience of legal experts. Torture as a part of the punishment may be regarded as including every kind of bodily or mental pain beyond what is necessary for the safe custody of the offender (with or without enforced labour) or the destruction of his life — in the language of Bentham, an " afflictive " as opposed to a " simple " punish- ment. Thus the unnecessary' sufferings endured in English prisons before the reforms of John Howard, the peine forte et dure, and the drawing and quartering in executions for treason, fall without any straining of terms under the category of torture. The whole subject is now one of only historical interest as far as Europe is concerned. It was, however, up to a comparatively recent date an integral part of the law of most countries (to which England, Aragon and Sweden1 formed honourable exceptions) — as much a commonplace of law as trial by jury in England.2 The prevailing view, no doubt, was that truth was best obtained by confession, the regina probationum. Where confession was not voluntary, it must be extorted. Speaking generally, torture may be said to have succeeded the ordeal and trial by battle. Where these are found in full vigour, as in the capitularies of Charlemagne, there is no provision for torture. It was no doubt accepted reluctantly as being a quasi judicium Dei, but tolerated in the absence of any better means of eliciting truth, especially in cases of great gravity, on the illogical assumption that extraordinary offences must be met by extraordinary remedies. Popular feeling too, says Verri, preferred, as causes of evil, human beings who could be forced to confess, rather than natural causes which must be accepted with resignation. Confession, as probatio probatissima and vox vera, was the best of all evidence, and all the machinery of law was moved to obtain it. The trials for witchcraft remain on record as a refutation of the theory. The opinions of the best lay authorities have been almost unanimously against the use of torture, even in a system where it was as completely established as it was in Roman law. " Tor- menta," says Cicero,3 in words which it is almost impossible to translate satisfactorily, " gubernat dolor, regit quaesitor, flectit libido, corrumpit spes, infirmat metus, ut in tot rerum angustiis nihil veritati loci relinquatur." Seneca says bitterly, " it forces even the innocent to lie." St Augustine4 recognizes the fallacy of torture. " If," says he, " the accused be innocent, he will undergo for an uncertain crime a certain punishment, and that not for having committed a crime, but because it is unknown whether he committed it." At the same time he regards it as excused by its necessity. The words of Ulpian, in the Digest of Justinian,6 are no less impressive: " The torture (quaestio) is not to be regarded as wholly deserving or wholly undeserving of confidence; indeed, it is untrustworthy, perilous and decep- tive. For most men, by patience or the severity of the torture, come so to despise the torture that the truth cannot be elicited from them; others are so impatient that they will lie in any direction rather than suffer the torture; so it happens that they depose to contradictions and accuse not only themselves but others." Montaigne's6 view of torture as a part of the punish- ment is a most just one: "All that exceeds a simple death appears to me absolute cruelty; neither can our justice expect that he whom the fear of being executed by being beheaded or hanged will not restrain should be any more awed by the imagina- tion of a languishing fire, burning pincers, or the wheel." He continues with the curious phrase: " He whom the judge has tortured (gehenne) that he may not die innocent, dies inno- cent and tortured." Montesquieu7 speaks of torture in a most guarded manner, condemning it, but without giving reasons, and eulogizing England for doing without it. The system was condemned by Bayle and Voltaire with less reserve. Among 1 But even in these countries, whatever the law was, torture certainly existed in fact. 1 Primitive systems varied. There is no trace of it in Babylonian or Mosaic law, but Egyptian and Assyrian provided for it; and the story of Regulus seems to show that it was in use at Carthage. 8 Pro Sulla, c. 28. 4 De civ. Dei, bk. xix. c. 6. 6 Dig. xlviii. 18, 23. 'Essay Ixv. (Cotton's trans.) 7 Esprit des lois, bk. vi. c. 17. TORTURE 73 the Germans, Sonnenfels (1766), and, among the Italians, Beccaria,1 Verri2and Manzoni3 will be found to contain most that can be said on the subject. The influence of Beccaria in rendering the use of torture obsolete was undoubtedly greater than that of any other legal reformer. The great point that he makes is the unfair incidence of torture, as minds and bodies differ in strength. Moreover, it is, says he, to confound all relations to expect that a man should be both accuser and accused, and that pain should be the test of truth, as though truth resided in the muscles and fibres of a wretch under torture. The result of the torture is simply a matter of calculation. Given the force of the muscles and the sensibility of the nerves of an innocent person, it is required to find the degree of pain necessary to make him confess himself guilty of a given crime. Bentham's4 objection to torture is that the effect is exactly the reverse of the intention. " Upon the face of it, and probably enough in the intention of the framers, the object of this institution was the protection of innocence; the protection of guilt and the aggravation of the pressure upon innocence was the real fruit of it." The apologists of torture are chiefly among jurists. But theoretical objections to it are often urged by the authors of books of practice, as by Damhouder, von Rosbach, von Boden, Voet, and others named below under the head of The Netherlands. It is worthy of note as illustrative of the feeling of the time that even Bacon 5 compares experiment in nature to torture in civil matters as the best means of eliciting truth. Muyart de Vouglans 6 derives the origin of torture from the law of God. Other apologists are Simancas, bishop of Badajoz,7 Engel,8 Pedro de Castro,9 and in England Sir R. Wiseman.10 Greece. — The opinion of Aristotle was in favour of torture as a mode of proof. ' It is," he says, " a kind of evidence, and appears to carry with it absolute credibility because a kind of constraint is applied." It is classed as one of the " artless persuasions " (&Tfx"°i T(t, in the plural, like tormenta. As might be expected, torture was frequently inflicted by the Greek despots, and both Zeno and Anaxarchus are said to have been put to it by such irre- sponsible authorities. At Sparta the despot Nabis was accustomed, as we learn from Polybius,18 to put persons to death by an instrument of torture in the form of his wife Apega, a mode of torture no doubt resembling the Jungfernkuss once used in Germany. At Argos, as Diodorus informs us (xv. 57), certain conspirators were put to the torture in 371 B.C.19 1 Dei Delilti e delle pene, c. xvi. ! Osservazioni sutta tortura. 3 Storia delta Colonna infatne. 4 Works, vii. 525. 6 Nov. Org., bk. i. aph. 98. In the Advancement of Learning, bk. iv. ch. 4, Bacon collects many instances of constancy under torture. ' Instituts du droit criminel (Paris, 1757). 7 De catholicis institutionibus liber, ad praecavendas el extirpandas haereses admodum necessarius (Rome, 1575). 8 De tortura ex for is christianis non proscribenda (Leipzig, 1733). ' Defensa de la tortura (Madrid, 1778). 10 Law of Laws, p. 122 (London, 1686). 11 Rhet. i. 15, 26. 12 In Onetum, i. 874. 13 Usually by the diaetetae in the Hephaestaeum, Isocrates, Trapez. 361. 14 The opinion of Cicero (De partitionibus oratoriis, § 34), that it was so applied at Athens and Rhodes, seems, as far as regards Athens, not to be justified by existing evidence. 16 The demand for, or the giving up of, a slave for torture was called TpAcX7| 2 Inst. 48 b. been led to countenance it in practice. The strongest authority is the resolution of the judges in Felton's case (1628), that he ought not by the law to be tortured by the rack, for no such punishment is known or allowed by our law."10 In accordance with this are the opinions of Sir John Fortescue,11 Sir Thomas Smith u and Sir E. Coke. The latter says, " As there is no law to warrant tortures in this land, nor can they be justified by any prescription, being so lately brought in."13 In spite of all this, torture in criminal proceedings was inflicted in England with more or less frequency for some centuries, both as a means of obtaining evidence and as a part of the punishment. But it should be remarked that torture of the former kind was invariably ordered by the Crown or council, or by some tribunal of extraordinary authority, such as the Star Chamber, not professing to be bound by the rules of the common law. In only two instances was a warrant to torture issued to a common law judge.14 A licence to torture is found as early as the Pipe Roll of 34 Hen. II." The Templars were tortured in 1310 by royal warrant addressed to the mayor and sheriffs of London.16 In this case it is recorded that torture was unknown in England, and that no torturer was to be found in the realm.17 A commission was issued concerning the tortures at Newgate in I334-18 The rack in the Tower is said to have been introduced by the duke of Exeter in the reign of Henry VI., and to have been thence called "the duke of Exeter's daughter."19 In this reign torture seems to have taken its place as a part of what may be called extraordinary criminal procedure, claimed, and it may be said tacitly recognized, as exercisable by virtue of the prerogative, and continued in use down to l64O.20 The infliction of torture gradually became more common under the Tudor monarchs. Under Henry VIII. it appears to have been in frequent use. Only two cases are recorded under Edward VI., and eight under Mary.21 The reign of Elizabeth was its culminating point. In the words of Hallam, " the rack seldom stood idle in the Tower for all the latter part of Elizabeth's reign."22 The varieties of torture used at this period are fully described by Dr Lingard,23 and consisted of the rack, the scavenger's daughter,24 the iron gauntlets or bilboes, and the cell called " Little Ease." The registers of the council during the Tudor and early Stuart reigns are full of entries as to the use of torture, both for state and for ordinary offences.26 Among notable prisoners put to the torture were Anne Askew, the Jesuit Campion, Guy Fawkes26 and Peacham (who was examined by Bacon " before torture, in torture and after torture ").27 The prevalence of torture in Elizabeth's reign led to the well-known defence at- tributed to Lord Burghley, " A declaration of the favourable dealing of Her Majesty's commissioners appointed for the examination of certain traitors, and of tortures unjustly reported to be done upon them for matter of religion," 1583. ffl The use of torture in England being always of an extraordinary and extra-judicial nature, it is 10 3 State Trials, 371. 11 De laudibus legum Angliae, c. 22. 12 Commonwealth of England, bk. ii. c. 27 (1583; ed. by L. Alston, 1906). It is curious that Sir T. Smith, with all his hatred of torture, was directed by a warrant under the queen's seal alone (not through the council) to torture the duke of Norfolk's servants in 1571. In a letter to Lord Burghley he pleaded for exemption from so hateful a task. 13 3 Inst. 35. Nevertheless, in the trials of Lord Essex and Southampton, Coke is found extolling the queen's mercy for not racking or torturing the accused (i State Trials, 1338). (See further authorities in Pollock and Maitland, Hist, of English Law, ii. 656.) 14 Jardine, Reading on the Use of Torture in the Criminal Law of England (1837), p. 52. 6 L. O. Pike, Hist, of Crime in England, i. 427. 16 Rymer, Foedera, iii. 228, 232. 17 Walter of Hemingford, p. 256. 18 Pike i. 481. 19 3 Inst. 34. 20 This is the date of the latest warrant in Jardine's work, but it was used on three Portuguese at Plymouth during the Common- wealth (Thurloe iii. 298). 21 It is to be noticed, as Jardine observes, that all these are cases of an ordinary nature, and afford no ground for the assertions made by Strutt and Bishop Burnet that torture was used to heretics as heretics. 22 Const. Hist. i. 201. 23 Hist, of England, vol. viii. app. note v. 24 These two were exactly opposite in principle. The rack stretched the limbs of the sufferer; the scavenger's daughter compressed him into a ball. 25 Fifty-five of these will be found in the appendix to Mr Jardine's work. An ordinary robber of plate was threatened with torture in 1567. — Froude, Hist, of England, viii. 386. 26 It is not certain whether he was racked, but probably he was, in accordance with the king's letter: " If he will not otherwise confess the gentlest tortures are to be first used to him, and so on, step by step, to the most severe, and so God speed the good work." 27 Dalrymple, Memoirs and Letters of James I. p. 85; Macaulay's essay on the works of Bacon. 28 Lord Somers's Tracts, i. 189. 76 TORTURE comparatively certain that it could hardly have been applied with that observation of forms which existed in countries where it was regulated by law. There were no rules and no responsibility beyond the will of the Crown or council. This irresponsibility is urged by Selden * as a strong objection to the use of torture. The main differences between the infliction of torture in England and on the continent of Europe seem to be that English lawyers made no dis- tinction of those liable to it, never allowed torture of witnesses, and elaborated no subtle rules as to plena and semiplena probatio. So far of what may be called torture proper, to which the common law professed itself a stranger. There were, however, cases fully recognized by the common law which differed from torture only in name. The peine forte el dure was a notable example of this. If a prisoner stood mute of malice instead of pleading, he was condemned to the peine, that is, to be stretched upon his back and to have iron laid upon him as much as he could bear, and more, and so to continue, fed upon bad bread and stagnant water through alternate days until he pleaded or died.2 It was abolished by 12 Geo. III. c. 20. 7 and 8 Geo. IV. c. 28 enacted that a plea of " not guilty " should be entered for a prisoner so standing mute. A case of peine occurred as lately as 1726. At times tying the thumbs with whip-cord was used instead of the peine. This was said to be a common practice at the Old Bailey up to the i8th century.3 In trials for witchcraft the legal proceedings often partook of the nature of torture, as in the throwing of the reputed witch into a pond to see whether she would sink or swim, in drawing her blood,4 and in thrusting pins into the body to try to find the insensible spot. Confessions, too, appear to have been often extorted by actual torture, and torture of an unusual nature, as the devil was supposed to protect his votaries from the effects of ordinary torture. Torture as a part of the punishment existed in fact, if not in name, down to a very recent period. Mutilation as a punishment appears in some of the pre-Conquest codes, such as those of Alfred, Athelstan and Canute, in the laws attributed to William the Conqueror and in the assize of Northampton (1176). Bracton, who does not notice torture as a means of obtaining evidence, divides corporal punishment into that inflicted with and without torture.5 Later instances are the punishment of burning to death inflicted on heretics under the Six Articles (31 Hen. VIII. c. 14) and other acts, and on women for petit treason (abolished by 30 Geo. III. c. 48), the mutilation inflicted for violence in a royal palace by 33 Hen. VIII. c. 12, the punishment for high treason, which existed nominally until 1870, the pillory (abolished by 7 Will. IV. and i Viet. c. 23), the stocks, branks and cucking-stool, and the burning in the hand for felony (abolished by 19 Geo. III. c. 74^). Corporal punishment now exists only in the case of juvenile offenders and of robbery with violence. It was abolished in the army by the Army Act i88i.6 Cruelty in punishment did not entirely cease in prisons even after the Bill of Rights. See such cases as R. v. Huggins, 17 State Trials, 298; Castell v. Bambridge, 2 Strange's Rep. 856. Scotland. — Torture was long a recognized part of Scottish criminal procedure, and was acknowledged as such by many acts and warrants of the Scottish parliament and warrants of the Crown and the privy council. Numerous instances occur in the Register of the Privy Council.7 Two acts in 1649 dealt with torture; one took the form of a warrant to examine witnesses against William Barton by any form of probation,8 the other of a warrant to a committee to inquire as to the use of torture against persons suspected of witchcraft.9 The judges in 1689 were empowered by the estates to torture Chiesly of Dalrye, charged with the murder of the lord president Lockhart, in order to discover accomplices. In the same year the use of torture without evidence or in ordinary cases was declared illegal in the Claim of Right. The careful wording of this will be noticed : it does not object to torture altogether, but reserves it for cases where a basis of evidence had already been laid, and for crimes of great gravity, thus admitting the dangerous principle, founded on Roman law, that the importance of the crime is a reason for departing from the ordinary rules of justice. However great the crime, it is no more certain than in the case of a crime of less gravity that the person accused was the person who committed it. A warrant issued in the same year to put to the torture certain persons accused of conspiring against the government, and also certain dragoons suspected of corresponding with Lord Dundee. In 1690 an act passed reciting the torture of William Carstares, a minister, in 1683, and re-establishing his competency as a witness.10 The last warrant appears to be one in 1690 for torturing a man accused of rape and murder. In 1708 torture in Scotland was finally abolished by 7 1 Table Talk, " Trial." 1 Stephen, Hist, of the Criminal Law, i. 297. 1 Stephen i. 300; Kelyng, Reports, p. 27. 4 The superstition was that any one drawing a witch's blood was free from her power. This is alluded to in Henry VI. pt. i. act i. sc. 5; " Blood will I draw on thee; thou art a witch." 6 1046. 7 E.g. i. 525, iv. 680, vi. 156. ' c. 370. "The thumbscrew with which Carstares had been tortured was afterwards presented to him as a remembrance by the privy council. 8 44 Viet. c. 9, s 7. 8 c. 333. Anne c. 21, 55. Many details of the tortures inflicted will be found in Pitcairn's Criminal Trials, the introduction to ]. Maclaurins' R. Criminal Cases and J. H. Burton's Narratives from Criminal Trials. Among other varieties — the nature of some of them can only be guessed — were the rack, the pilniewinkis, the boot,11 the caschie-laws, the lang irnis, the narrow-bore, the pynebankis, and worst of all, the waking, or artificial prevention of sleep.12 The ingenuity of torture was exercised in a special degree on charges of witchcraft, notably in the reign of James VI., an expert both in witchcraft and in torture. The act of 1649 already cited shows that the principle survived him. Under the government of the dukes of Lauderdale and York torture as a practice in charges of religious and political offences reached its height. " The privy council was accustomed to extort confessions by torture; that grim divan of bishops, lawyers and peers sucking in the groans of each undaunted enthusiast, in hope that some imperfect avowal might lead to the sacrifice of other victims, or at least warrant the execution of the present." 13 With such examples before them in the law, it is scarcely to be wondered at that persons in positions of authority, especially the nobility, sometimes exceeded the law and inflicted torture at their own will and for their own purposes. There are several instances in the Register of the Privy Council of suits against such persons, e.g. against the earl of Orkney, in 1605, for putting a son of Sir Patrick Bellenden in the boots. Ireland seems to have enjoyed comparative immunity from torture. It was not recognized by the common or statute law, and the cases of its infliction do not appear to be numerous. In 1566 the president and council of Munster, or any three of them, were empowered to inflict torture, " in cases necessary, upon vehement presumption of any great offence in any party committed against the Queen's Majesty." 14 In 1583 Hurley, an Irish priest, was tortured in Dublin by toasting his feet against the fire with hot boots." 15 In 1627 the lord deputy doubted whether he had authority to put a priest named O'Cullenan to the rack. An answer was returned by Lord Killultagh to the effect that " you ought to rack him if you saw cause and hang him if you found reason." " The latest case of peine forte et dure seems to have been in 1740. British Colonies and Dependencies. — The infliction of torture in any British colony or dependency has usually been regarded as contrary to law, and ordered only by arbitrary authority. It is true that in the trial of Sir Thomas Picton in 1806, for subjecting, while governor of Trinidad, a woman named Luisa Calderon to the torture of the picquet, l7 one of the grounds of defence was that such torture was authorized by the Spanish law of the island, but the accused was convicted in spite of this defence, and the final decision of the cofirt of king's bench, in 1812, decreeing a respite of the defendant's recognizances till further order, was perhaps not so much an affirmation of the legality in the particular instance as the practical expression of a wish to spare an eminent public servant.18 As to India, the second charge against Warren Hastings was extortion from the begums of Oude by means of the torture of their servants.19 In the present Indian Penal Code and Evidence Acts there are provisions intended, as Sir James Stephen says,20 to prevent the practice of torture by the police for the purpose of extracting con- fessions from persons in their custody.21 In Ceylon torture, which had been allowed under the Dutch government, was expressly abolished by royal proclamation in 1799. In the Channel Islands confessions of persons accused of witch- craft in the I7th century were frequently obtained by torture.22 United States.— ^One instance of the peine forte et dure is known. It was inflicted in 1692 on Giles Cory of Salem, who refused to plead when arraigned for witchcraft.23 The constitution of the United States provides, in the words of the Bill of Rights, that cruel and unusual punishments are not to be inflicted.24 This is repeated in the constitutions of most states. The infliction of cruel and unusual punishment by the master or officer of an American vessel on the high seas, or within the maritime jurisdiction of the United States, is punishable with fine or imprisonment, or both.25 There have been a good many decisions on the question of cruel and unusual punishments; e.g. Wilkerson v. Utah, 99 U.S. Rep. 130; 11 Persons subjected to more than usual torture from the boot were said to be " extremely booted." 12 This seems to have been used in one case in England. Lecky, Rationalism in Europe, i. 122. 13 Hallam, Const. Hist. iii. 436. See Burnet, Hist, of Own Time, i. 583; and SCOTLAND. 14 Frpude, Hist, of England, viii. 386. 15 Ibid xi. 263. 16 Jardine, p. 54. 17 In the picquet the sufferer was supported only on the great toe (which rested on a sharp stake), and by a rope attached to one arm. 18 30 State Trials, 449, besides many pamphlets of the period. 19 See the Report of the Proceedings, vol. i. 20 Stephen, Indian Evidence Act, p. 126. 21 Sections 327-331 of code; ss. 25-27 of act. 22 J. L. Pitts, Witchcraft in the Channel Islands, p. o. (Guernsey, 1886). 23 Bouvier, Law Diet., s.y. " Peine forte et dure." 24 Amendments, art. viii. (1789). 26 Revised Stat. 5347. TORTURE 77 Territory of New Mexico v. Ketchum, 65 Pacific Rep. 169 (death penalty for train robbery held not unconstitutional). Continental European States. — These fall into four main groups, the Latin, Teutonic, Scandinavian and Slav states respectively. The principles of Roman law were generally adopted in the first and second groups. Latin States. — In France torture does not seem to have existed as a recognized practice before the itth century. From that period until the I7th century it was regulated by a series of royal ordonnances at first of local obligation, afterwards applying to the whole kingdom. Torture was used only by the royal courts, its place in the seigneurial courts being supplied by the judicial combat. The earliest ordonnance on the subject was that of Louis IX. in 1254 for the reformation of the law in Languedoc. It enacted that persons of good fame, though poor, were not to be put to the question on the evidence of one witness.1 Numerous other provisions were made between 1254 and 1670, when an ordonnance was passed under Louis XIV., which regulated the infliction of torture for more than a century. Two kinds were recognized, the question preparatoire and the question prealable. The first was used where strong evidence of a capital crime — strong, but of itself insufficient for conviction — was produced against the accused. The second was used to obtain a confession of accomplices after conviction. There was also a mitigated torm called the presentment, in which the accused was simply bound upon the rack in terrorem and there interrogated. No person was exempt on the ground of dignity, but exemption was allowed to youths, old men, sick persons and others. Counsel for the accused were usually not allowed. The question preparatoire was abolished by royal decree in 1780, but in 1788 the parliaments refused to register a decree abolishing the prealable. But torture of all kinds was abolished by an ordonnance in 1789. The Declaration of Right in 1791 (art. viii.) affirmed that the law ought not to establish any punishments other than such as are strictly and evidently necessary. In modern law the code penal enacts that all criminals shall be punished as guilty of assassination who for the execution of their crimes employ torture.2 The code also makes it punishable to subject a person under arrest to torture.3 The theory of semiplena probalio was worked out with more refinement than in other systems. In some parts of France not only were half-proofs admitted, but quarters and eighths of proofs.* Among the numerous cases of historical interest were those of the Templars in 1307, Villon about 1457, Dolet in 1546, the marquise de Brinvilliers in 1676 and Jean Galas in 1762. 5 The law as it existed in Italy is contained in a long line of authorities chiefly supplied by the school of Bologna, beginning with the glossatores and coming down through the post-glossatores, until the system attained its perfection in the vast work of Farinaccius, written early in the I7th century, where every possible question that could arise is treated with a revolting completeness. One of the earliest jurists to treat it was Cino da Pistoia, the friend of Dante.6 He treats it at no great length. With him the theory of indicia exists only in embryo, as they cannot be determined by law but must be at the discretion of the judge. Differing from Bartolus, he affirms that torture cannot be repeated without fresh indicia. The writings of jurists were supplemented by a large body of legis- lative enactments in most of the Italian states, extending from the constitutions of the emperor Frederick II. down to the i8th century. It is not until Bartolus (1314-1357) that the law begins to assume a definite and complete form. In his commentary on book xlviii. of the Digest he follows Roman law closely, but introduces some further refinements: e.g. though leading questions may not be asked in the main inquiry they are admissible as subsidiary. There is a beginning of classification of indicia. A very full discussion of the law is contained in the work on practice of Hippolytus de Marsiliis,7 a jurist of Bologna, notorious, on his own admission, as the inventor of the torture of keeping without sleep. He defines the question as inquisitio veritatis per tormenta et cordis dolorem, thus recognizing the mental as well as the physical elements in torture. It was to be used only in capital cases and atrocious crimes. The works of Farinaccius and of Julius Clarus nearly a century later were of great authority from the high official positions filled by the writers. Farinaccius was procurator-general to Pope Paul V., and his discussion of torture is one of the most complete of any.8 It occupies 251 closely printed folio pages with double columns. The length at which the subject is treated is one of the best proofs 1 Ordonnances des rois, i. 72. * s. 303. * s. 344. 4 See Pollock and Maitland, ii. 658, note. 6 On the French system generally see Imbettus, Institutiones forenses gallicae (Utrecht, 1649); N. Weiss, La Chambre ardente, 1540-1550 (Paris, 1889). A large number of authorities deal mainly with the ordonnance of 1670; Muyart de Vouglans, Inst. crim. (Paris, 1767), and Jousse, Traite de la justice crim. (Paris, 1771), are examples. F. Siegneux de Correvon, Essai sur V usage, I'abus, et les inconveniens de la torture (Geneva, 1768), is one of the opponents of the system. 6 Cinus Pistorensis, Super codice, de tormentis (Venice, 1493). 7 Practica criminalis quae Ayerolda nuncupatur (Venice, 1532). 'Praxis et theorica criminalis, bk. ii. tit. v. quaest. 36-51 (Frankfort, 1622). of the science to which it had been reduced. The chief feature of the work is the minute and skilful analysis of indicia, jama, prae- sumptio, and other technical terms. Many definitions of indicium are suggested, the best perhaps being conjectura ex probabUibus et nan necessariis orta, a quibus potest abesse veritas sed non verisimilitude. For every infliction of torture a distinct indicium is required. A single witness or an accomplice constitutes an indicium. But this rule does not apply where it is inflicted for discovering accomplices or for discovering a crime other than that for which it was originally inflicted. Torture may be ordered in all criminal cases, except small offences, and in certain civil cases; such as denial of a depositum, bankruptcy, usury, treasure trove, and fiscal cases. It may be inflicted on all persons, unless specially exempted (clergy, minors, &c.), and even those exempted may be tortured by command of the sovereign. There are three kinds of torture, levis, gravis and gravissima, the first and second corresponding to the ordinary torture of French writers, the last to the extraordinary. The extraordinary or gravissima was as much as could possibly be borne without destroying life. The judge could not begin with torture; it was only a subsidium. If inflicted without due course of law, it was void as a proof. The judge was liable to penalties if he tortured without proper indicia, if a privileged person, or if to the extent that death or permanent illness was the result. An immense variety of tortures is mentioned, and the list tended to grow, for, as Farinaccius says, judges continually invented new modes of torture to please themselves. Numerous casuistical questions are treated at length, such as, what kinds of reports or how much hearsay evidence constituted fame? Were there three or five grades in torture? Julius Clarus of Alessandria was a member of the council of Philip II. To a great extent he follows Farinaccius.' He puts the questions for the consideration of the judge with great clearness. They are — whether (i) a crime has been committed, (2) the charge is one in which torture is admissible, (3) the fact can be proved other- wise, (4) the crime was secret or open, (5) the object of the torture is to elicit confession of crime or discovery of accomplices. The clergy can be tortured only in charges of treason, poisoning and violation of tombs. On the great question whether there are three or five grades, he decides in favour of five, viz. threats, taking to the place of torment, stripping and binding, lifting on the rack, racking.9 Other Italian writers of less eminence have been referred to for the purposes of this article. The burden of their writings is practically the same, but they have not attained the systematic perfection of Farinaccius. Citations from many of them are made by Manzoni (see below). Among others are Guido de Suzara, Paris de Puteo, Aegidius Bossius of Milan, Casonus of Venice, Decianus, Follerius and Tranquillus Ambrosianus, whose works cover the period from the 1 3th to the end of the 1 7th century. The law depended mainly on the writings of the jurists as interpreters of custom. At the same time in all or nearly all the Italian states and colonies10 the customary law was limited, supplemented, or amended by legislation. That a check by legislative authority was necessary appears from the glimpses afforded by the writings of the jurists that the letter of the law was by no means always followed. The earliest legislation after the Roman law seems to be the constitutions of the emperor Frederick II. for Sicily promulgated in 1231. Torture was abolished in Tuscany in 1786, largely owing to the influence of Beccaria, whose work first appeared in 1764, and other states followed, but the puntale or piquet seems to have existed in practice at Naples up to 1859. Several instances of the torture of eminent persons occur in Italian history, such as Savonarola, Machiavelli, Giordano Bruno, Cam- panella. Galileo appears to have only been threatened with the esame rigoroso. The historical case of the greatest literary interest is that of the persons accused of bringing the plague into Milan in 1630 by smearing the walls of houses with poison. An analysis of the case was undertaken by Verri " and Manzoni,12 and puts in a clear light some of the abuses to which the system led in times of popular panic. Convincing arguments are urged by Manzoni, after an exhaustive review of the authorities, to prove the ground- lessness of the charge on which two innocent persons underwent the torture of the canape, or hempen cord (the effect of which was partial or complete dislocation of the wrist), and afterwards suffered death by breaking on the wheel. The main arguments, shortly stated, are these, all based upon the evidence as recorded, and the law as laid down by jurists, (i) The unsupported evidence of an accomplice was treated as an indicium in a case not one of those exceptional ones in which such an indicium was sufficient. The evidence of two witnesses or a confession by the accused was neces- sary to establish a remote indicium, such as lying. (2) Hearsay evidence was received when primary evidence was obtainable. (3) The confession made under torture was not ratified afterwards. (4) It was made in consequence of a promise of impunity. (5) It was of an impossible crime. * Practica criminalis finalis (Lyons, 1637). 10 It is obvious from the allusion at the end of Othello that Shake- speare regarded torture as possible in Cyprus when it was a Venetian colony. 11 Osservazioni sulla tortura. 12 Storia della Colonna infame. Neither writer alludes to Beccaria. TORTURE In Spain, as in Italy, the law depended partly on the writings of jurists, partly on legislation. Roman law was carried through the Visigothic Code and the Fuero juzgo1 (which repeats it almost word for word) down to the Siete partidas? This treatise, com- piled by Alphonso the Wise about 1243, but not promulgated till 1256, amended the previously existing law in the direction of greater precision. Torment is defined as a manner of punishment which lovers of justice use, to scrutinize by it the truth of crimes committed secretly and not provable in any other manner. Repetition was allowed in case of grave crimes. There were the usual provisions for the infliction of torture only by a judge having jurisdiction, and for the liability of the judge for exceeding legal limits. Subsequent codes did little more than amend the Partulas in matters of pro- cedure. Torture is not named in the Ordenanzas reales of Ferdinand and Isabella (1485). The Nueva recopilacion of Philip II. enacted that torture was to be applied by the alcaldes on due sentence of the court-^-even on hidalgos in grave crimes — without regard to alleged privilege or custom. In the Novisima recopilacion of 1775 the only provisions on the subject are that the alcaldes are not to condemn to torment without preceding sentence according to law, and that hidalgos are not to be tormented or suffer infamous punishment. In Aragon, while it was an inde- pendent state, torture was not in use to the same extent as in other parts of Spain. It was abolished in the I3th century by the General Privilege of 1283 except in the case of vagabonds charged with coin- ing. A statute of 1335 made it unlawful to put any freeman to the torture.3 On the other hand, the Aragonese nobility had a power, similar to the peine forte et dure, of putting a criminal to death by cold, hunger and thirst.4 The jurists dealing with the subject are not as numerous as in Italy, no doubt because Italian opinions were received as law in all countries whose systems were based on Roman law.6 Some of the Italian jurists too, like Clarus, were at that same time Spanish officials. The earliest Spanish secular jurist appears to be Suarez de Paz.6 According to him the most usual tortures in Spain were the water and cord, the pulley or strappado, the hot brick, and the tablillas, or thumbscrew and boot combined. Three was the greatest number of times that any torture could be applied. It might be decreed either on demand of the accuser or at will of the judge. The Roman rule of beginning with the weakest was amplified into a series of regulations that a son was to be put to the question before a father, a woman before a man, &c. The fullest statement of Spanish law is to be found in the work of Antonio Gomez, a professor at Salamanca.7 With him no exceptions apply in charges of iaesa majeslas divina or humana. A judge is liable to different punishment according as he orders torture dolose or culpabiliter. Differing from Hippolytus de Marsiliis, Gomez holds that the dying accusation of a murdered man is not an indicium. A confession on insufficient indicia is void. His division of torture into tortura actualis and terror propinquus is the same as that of the French jurists into torture and presentment. The conclusions of the ecclesiastical writers of Spain, such as Eymerico and Simancas, were accepted wholly or partially by the secular writers, such as Alvarez de Velasco,8 and the Peruvian, Juan de Hevia Bolanos,9 who points out differences in the ecclesiastical and secular systems, e.g. the former brought up the accused for ratification in three days, the latter in twenty-four hours. A good deal of the Spanish law will be found in the proceedings against Sir Thomas Picton (see above). Torture in Spain seems to have been inflicted on Jews to an extraordinary extent, as it was also in Portugal, where the latest legislation as to torture seems to be of the year 1678. In 1790 it had become obsolete,10 and in a work on criminal procedure four years later it is only referred to for the purpose of stating that when it did exist it was realis or verbalist Teutonic Slates. — Germany (including Austria) is distinguished by the possession of the most extensive literature and legislation 1 vi. 4, 5. 2 Partida, vii. 30. It was one of the earliest books printed in Spain, the earliest edition appearing in 1491. ' Cited Hallam, Middle Ages, iii. 76. 4 Du Cange, s.v. Fame necare. • In all the Latin countries the idea of torture had become a commonplace. The dramatists contain frequent allusions to it. In Lope de Vega's El Perro del hortelano (" The Dog in the Manger "), one of the characters says, " Here's a pretty inquisition!" to which the answer is, " The torture will be next applied." Moliere and Racine both make use of it. In L'Avare, act iv. sc. J, Harpagon threatens to put his whole household to the question. In Les Plaideurs Dandin invites Isabelle to see la question as a mode of passing an hour or two. In England Bacon (Essay Ivi.) says, " There is no worse torture than the torture of laws." The same jdea occurs again in the Advancement of Learning, viii. 3, 13, " It is a cruel thing to torture the laws that they may torture men." • Praxis ecclesiastica et saecularis, vol. i. pt. v. §. 3 (Salamanca, 1583)- 7 Variae resolutiones, p. 412 (Antwerp, 1593). ' Judex perfectus (Lausanne, 1740). • Curia fuipica (Madrid, 1825). u Repertorio geral das leis extravagantes, p. 381 (Coimbra, 1815). u Paschal Freirus, Inst. jur. crim. lusitani, p. 203 (Lisbon, 1794). on the subject. The principal writers are Langer, von Rosbach and von Boden. In addition may be cited the curious Layenspiegel of Ulrich Tengler (1544), and the works of Remus, Casonus and Carpzow.12 Legislation was partly for the empire, partly for its component states. Imperial legislation dealt with the matter in the Golden Bull (1356), the Ordinance of Bamberg (1507), the Carolina (;532)13 and the Constitulio criminalis theresiana (1768). u The Carolina followed the usual lines, the main difference being that the infliction must be in the presence of two scabini and a notary, who was to make a detailed record of the proceedings. The code of Maria Theresa defines torture as " a subsidiary means of eliciting truth." It could be applied only in cases where condemna- tion would have involved capital or severe corporal punishment. The illustrated edition was suppressed by Prince Kaunitz a few days after its appearance. Torture was formally abolished in the empire in 1776. In Prussia it was practically abolished by Frederick the Great in 1740, formally in 1805. Even before its abolition it was in use only to discover accomplices after conviction." In some other states it existed longer, in Baden as late as 1831. It was carried toexcess in Germany, as in the Netherlands and Scotland in charges of witchcraft. The Netherlands. — The principal legislative enactment was the code of criminal procedure promulgated by Philip II. in 1570 and generally known as the Ordonnance sur le style.16 One of its main objects was to assimilate the varieties of local custom, as the Nueva. recopilacion had done in Spain three years earlier. The French ordonnance of 1670 is probably largely based on it. In spite of the attempt of the ordinance to introduce uniformity, certain cities of Brabant, it is said, still claimed the privilege of torturing in certain cases not permitted by the ordinance, e.g. where there was only one witness.17 The law of 1670 continued to be the basis of cnrnutal procedure in the Austrian Netherlands until 1787. In the United Provinces it was not repealed until 1798. The principal Itext-writers are Damhouder,18 van Leeuwen 19 and Voet. Van Leeuwen lays down as a fundamental principle that no one was to be condemned to death without confession, and such confession, if attainable in no other way, ought to be elicited by torture. Witnesses could be tortured only if they varied on confrontation. One of the indicia not always recognized by jurists was previous conviction for a similar crime. Voet's commentary ad Pandectas20 is interesting for its taking the same view as St Augustine as to the uselessness of torture, and compares its effect with that of the trial by battle. At the same time he allows it to be of some value in the case of very grave crimes. The value of torture was doubted by others as well as Voet, e.g. by A. Nicholas21 and by van Essen.22 At the same time a writer was found to compose a work on the unpromising subject of the rack.23 Scandinavian Countries. — There is a notice of torture in the Ice- landic Code known as the Gragas (about 1119). Judicial torture is said to have been introduced into Denmark by Valdemar I. in 1 157.24 In the code of Christian V. (1683) it was limited to cases of treason.26 It was abolished by the influence of Struensee in 1771, but notwithstanding this he was threatened with it, though it was not actually inflicted, before his execution in 1772. In Sweden torture never existed as a system, and in the code of 1734 it was expressly forbidden.26 It was however occasionally inflicted, as in England, by extrajudicial authorities, called secret committees. 11 Extracts from these and other writers will be found in Lea, Superstition and Force, and in R. Quanter, Die Falter in der deutschen Rechtspflege sonst und jetzt (Berlin, 1900). 13 Chs. 33-44. 14 Art. 38 (Vienna, 1769). 16 This statement is made on the authority of a work attributed to Frederick himself, Dissertation sur les raisons d'etablir ou d'abroger les lois (1748). " A list of the numerous commentaries on this code will be found in Nybels, Les Ordonnances criminelles de Philippe II. de 1570, p. 23 (Brussels, 1856). 17 Nybels, pp. 31, 33. 18 Pratique judiciaire en causes criminelles (Antwerp, 1564). 19 Censura forensis, pt. ii. bk. ii. chs. 8, 9 (Leiden, 1677). 20 On Dig. xlviii. 18. There are numerous editions of Voet, the sixth (generally found in libraries) is the Hague (1734). 21 Si la torture est un moyen sur a verifier les crimes (Amsterdam, 1681). Also by an anonymous writer thirty years earlier, De Pijnbank wedersproken en bematigt (Rotterdam, 1651). 22 Jus ecclesiaslicum universum (Louvain, 1720). 23 Hieronymi Magii Anglarenis de equuleo liber postumus (Amster- dam, 1664). There are several works dealing with torture in witchcraft proceedings. A large number of cases will be found in I. Scheltema, Geschiedenis der Hexen-processen (Haarlem, 1828). For torture in the i8th century see E. Hubert, La Torture aux Pays Bas autrichiens pendant la xviii' siecle (Brussels, 1897). 24 Baden, Dansk juridisk Ordbog, s.v. " Tortur " (Copenhagen,. 1828). 26 Kolderup-Rosenvinge, Udvalg af gamle Danske-Domme, bk. i. c. 20 (Copenhagen, 1848). 28 Cod. leg. svecicarum, pp. 233, 370 (Stockholm, 1743). TORUS— TOTEMISM 79 The " cave of roses," where reptiles were kept for the purpose of torture, was closed by Gustavus III. in 1772. Slav Countries. — The earliest mention of torture seems to be that of the mutilation provided for certain offences by the code of Stephen Dushan in 1349. In Russia torture does not occur in the recensions of the earlier law. It was possibly of Tatar origin, and the earliest mention of it in an official document is probably in the Sudebnik of Ivan the Terrible (1497). In the ordinance of 1556 there are elaborate regulations, which one learns from history were not always observed in periods of political disturbance, and torture seems to have been used even as a means of enforcing payment of debts. The reaction begins with Peter the Great and culminates with Catharine II., who was largely influenced by the opinions of Beccaria and Voltaire. In the instructions to the commission for framing a criminal code (1766), it is declared that all punishments by which the body is maimed ought to be abolished,1 and that the torture of the rack violates the rules of equity and does not produce the end proposed by the laws.2 It was formally abolished by Alexander I. in 1801, and in 1832 the Svod Zakonov subjected to penalties any judge who presumed to order it. But even as late as 1847 it seems to have been inflicted in one or two exceptional cases.3 AUTHORITIES. — For England Jardine's is still the standard work. Much general information and numerous authorities will be found in Lipenius, Bibliotheca realis Juridica, s.v. " Tortura " (Frankfort, 1679), and in the more modern work of J. Helbing, Die Tortur (Berlin, 1902). For those who can obtain access to it the catalogue issued at the sale of M. G. Libri (1861) is valuable. He had collected most of the books on the subject. There are several publications dealing with cases of individuals in addition to the numerous ones on witchcraft trials, e.g. those of William Lithgow, the Amboyna case, Dellon and Van Halen. Lithgow' s story has been republished (Glasgow, 1907). (J. W.) TORUS, a Latin word, meaning a round swelling or pro- tuberance, applied to a convex moulding in architecture, which in section is generally a semicircle. The earliest examples are found in Egypt, where it was carried up the angles of the pylon and temple walls and horizontally across the same. Its most frequent employment is in the bases of columns; in the Roman Doric order being the lowest moulding; in the Ionic orders there are generally two torus mouldings separated by a scotia with fillets. Both in Greek and Roman bases sometimes the torus is elaborately carved. (See MOULDING.) TORZHOK, a town of Russia, in the government of Tver, on the river Tvertsa, 21 m. by rail S.W. of the Likhoslavl, station of the St Petersburg & Moscow railway. Pop. (1900), 15,119. It dates from the nth century, and the name (market- place) shows that this dependency of Novgorod was a commercial centre. It was fortified with a stone wall, which only partially protected it from the attacks of Mongols, Lithuanians and Poles. Torzhok is celebrated in Russia for its embroidered velvet and embroidered leather-work, for the manufacture of travelling bags, and for its trade in corn and flour. TOSCANELLA (anc. Tuscana, q.v.}, a town of the province of Rome, Italy, 15 m. N.E. of Corneto by road, 545 ft. above sea- level. Pop. (1901), 4839. The medieval walls with their towers are still preserved. On the ancient citadel hill is the Romanesque church of S. Pietro, belonging to four different periods — 739, 1093 (the date of the reconstruction of the crypt), the middle of the 1 2th and the end of the i2th century. It has the shape of a Roman basilica, with a nave and two aisles and one apse. The elaborate facade with its rose window also belongs to the I2th century. S. Maria in the valley below dates from 1050 to 1206, and has a similar facade and a massive square campanile. In the town are two other Romanesque churches. See G. T. Rivoira, Origini dell architettura Lombarda i. 146 (Rome 1901). TOSTIG (d. 1066), earl of Northumbria, was a son, probably the third, of Earl God wine, and in 1051 married Judith, sister or daughter of Baldwin V., count of Flanders. In the year of his marriage he shared the short exile of his father, returning with him to England in 1052, and became earl of Northumbria after the death of Earl Siward in 1055. He was very intimate with his brother-in-law, Edward the Confessor, and in 1061 he visited Pope Nicholas II. at Rome in the company of Aldred, archbishop of York. By stern and cruel measures Tostig 1 Art. 96. s Ibid. 192-197. * See the various histories of Russian law, such as Maceiovski, Lange and Zagoskin, under the heads of puitka or muchenie. introduced a certain amount of order into the wild northern district under his rule; this severity made him exceedingly unpopular, and in 1065 Northumbria broke into open revolt. Declaring Tostig an outlaw and choosing Morkere in his stead, the rebels marched southwards and were met at Oxford by Earl Harold, who, rather against the will of the king, granted their demands. Tostig sailed to Flanders and thence to Nor- mandy, where he offered his services to Duke William, who was related to his wife and who was preparing for his invasion of England. He then harried the Isle of Wight and the Kentish and Lincolnshire coasts, and, after a stay in Scotland and possibly a visit to Norway, joined another invader, Harald III. Hardrada, king of Norway, in the Tyne. Together they sailed up the Hum- ber and at Gate Fulford, near York, defeated Earls Morkere and Edwine and entered York. But Harold, now king, was hurrying to the north. Taking the Norwegians by surprise at Stamford Bridge he destroyed their army on the 25th of September 1066, and in this battle both Tostig and the king of Norway were slain. Tostig's two sons appear to have taken refuge in Norway, and his widow Judith married Welf , duke of Bavaria. See E. A. Freeman, The Norman Conquest, vols. ii. and iii. (1870-1876). TOTANA, a town of eastern Spain, in the province of Murcia, on the Lorca-Murcia railway. Pop. (1900), 13,703. The town, which consists of two parts, the Barrio de Sevilla and Barrio de Triana, contains several handsome public buildings, among them the church of Santiago, with its three naves. Water is conveyed to Totana from the Sierra de Espuna by an aqueduct 7 m. long. Saltpetre is obtained among the hills, and there is a thriving trade in wheat, oranges, olives, almonds, and wine from the Sangonera valley. Other industries are the manufac- ture of linen, leather and the earthenware jars called tinajas, which are used for the storage of oil and wine. TOTEMISM. The word " totem " is used in too many varying senses by students of early society and religion. The term came into the English language in the form of " totam," through a work of 1791, by J. Long, an interpreter between the whites and the Red Indians of North America.4 Long himself seems to have used the word to denote the protective familiar, usually an animal, which each Indian selected for himself, generally through the monition of a dream during the long fast of lads at their initiation. Such selected (or, when bestowed by medicine-men or friends, " given ") totems are styled " personal totems " and have no effect in savage law, nor are they hereditary, with any legal consequences. In stricter terminology " totem " denotes the object, gene- rally of a natural species, animal or vegetable, but occasionally rain, cloud, star, wind, which gives its name to a kindred actual or supposed, among many savages and barbaric races in America, Africa, Australia and Asia and the isles. Each child, male or female, inherits this name, either from its mother (" female descent ") or from its father (" male descent "). Between each person and his or her name-giving object, a certain mystic rapport is supposed to exist. Where descent wavers, persons occasionally have, in varying degrees, the totems of both parents. Religious Aspect of the Totem. — As a rule, by no means in- variable, the individual may not kill or eat the name-giving object of his kin, except under dire necessity; while less usually it is supposed to protect him and to send him monitory dreams. This is the " religious " or semi-religious aspect of the totem, or this aspect is, by some students, called " religious." We also hear of customs of burying and lamenting dead ani- mals which are regarded with reverence by this or that " family," or " clan." This custom is reported among the Samoans, and one " clan " was said to offer first-fruits to its sacred animal, the eel; while the " clan " that revered the pigeon kept and fed a tame specimen.6 But in Samoa, though the sacred animals of "clans " or " families " are, in all probability, survivals of totemism, they are now regarded by the people as the vehicles 4 Long, Voyages and Travels of an Indian Interpreter (1791), p. 86. 6 Turner, Samoa, p. 71. 8o TOTEMISM of " clan " or " family " gods, and therefore receive honours not paid to the hereditary totems of Australia and North America, which have nothing godlike. It is to be presumed that " totem dances " in which some Australian tribes exhibit, in ballets d'action, the incidents of a myth concerning the totem, are, in a certain sense, " religious "; when they are not magical, and intended to foster and fertilize the species, animal or vegetable or other to which the totem belongs. The magical performances for the behoof of the totem crea- tures may be studied in the chapters on " Intichiuma " in Messrs Spencer and Gillen's Native Tribes of Central Australia, and Native Tribes of Northern Australia. Among the many guesses at the original purpose of totemism, one has been that the primal intention of totem sets of human beings was to act as magical co-operative stores for supplying increased quantities of food to the tribe. But this opinion has gone the way of other conjectures. The " religious " status of the totem is lowest among peoples where its influence on social regulations is greatest, and vice versa, a topic to which we recur. There are also various rites, in various tribes, connecting the dead man with his totem at his funeral; perhaps at his initia- tion, when a boy, into the esoteric knowledge and rules of his tribe. Men may identify themselves with their totems, or, mark themselves as of this or that totem by wearing the hide or the plumage of the bird or beast, or by putting on a mask resembling its face. The degree of " religious " regard for the revered object increases in proportion as it is taken to contain the spirit of an ancestor or to be the embodiment of a god: ideas not found among the most backward savages. The supreme or superior being of low savage religion or mythology is never a totem. He may be able, like Zeus in Greek mythology, to assume any shape he pleases; and in the myths of some Australian tribes he ordained the institution of totemism. Byamee, among the Euahlayi tribe of north-west New South Wales, had all the totems in him, and when he went to his paradise, Bullimah, he distributed them, with the mar- riage rules, among his people.1 In other legends, especially those of central and northern Australia, the original totem creatures, animal in form, with bestial aspect, were developed in a marine or lacustrine environment, and from them were evolved the human beings of each totem kin. The rule of non-inter- marriage within the totem was, in some myths, of divine institu- tion; in others, was invented by the primitive wandering totemic beings; or was laid down by the wisdom of mere men who saw some unknown evil in consanguine unions. The strict regard paid to the rule may be called " religious "; in so far as totemists are aware of no secular and social raison d" lire of the rule it has a mysterious character. But whereas to eat the totem is sometimes thought to be automatically punished by sickness or death, this danger does not attach to marriage within the totem save in a single known case. The secular penalty alone is dreaded; so there seems to be no religious fear of offending a superior being, or the totem himself: no tabu of a mystic sort. Social Aspect of the Totem. — The totem has almost always a strong influence on or is associated with marriage law, and except in the centre of Australia, and perhaps in the little-known West, men and women of the same totem may not intermarry, " however far apart their hunting grounds," and though there is no objection on the score of consanguinity. This is the result, in Australia, of the custom, there almost universal, which causes each individual to belong, by birth, to one or other of the two main exogamous and intermarrying divisions of the tribe (usually called " phratries "). The phra- tries (often known by names of animals, as Eagle Hawk and Crow, Crow and White Cockatoo) contain each a number of totem kins, as Dog, Wild Cherry, Wombat, Frog, Owl, Emu, Kangaroo, and so on, and (except among the Arunta " nation " of five tribes in Central Australia) the same totem kin never occurs in both phratries. Thus as all persons except in the Arunta nation, marry out of their own phratry, none can marry into his or her totem kin. 1 Mrs Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe. In some parts of North America the same rule prevails; with this peculiarity that the phratries, or main exogamous divisions, are not always two, as in Australia, but, for example, among the Mohegans three — Wolf, Turtle, and Turkey.2 In Wolf all the totems are quadrupeds; under Turtle they are various species of turtles and the yellow eel; and under Turkey all the totems are birds. Clearly this ranking of the totems in the phratries is the result of purposeful design, not of accident. Design may also be observed in such phratries of Australian tribes as are named after animals of contrasted colours, such as White Cockatoo and Crow, Light Eagle Hawk and Crow. It has been supposed by Mr J. Mathew, Pere Schmidt and others that these Australian phratries arose in an alliance with connubium between a darker and a lighter race.3 But another hypothesis is not less prob- able; and as we can translate only about a third of Australian phratry names, conjecture on this subject is premature. Both in Australia and America the animals, as Eagle Hawk and Crow, which give their names to the phratries, are almost always totem kins within their own phratries.4 The Moquis of Arizona are said to have ten phratries, by Captain Ulick Bourke in his Snake Dance of the Moquis, but • possibly he did not use the term " phratry " in the sense which we attach to it. Among the Urabunna of Southern Central Australia, and among the tribes towards the Darling River, a very peculiar rule is said to prevail. There are two phratries, and in each are many totem kins, but each totem kin may intermarry with only one totem kin which must be in the opposite phratry.6 Thus there are as many exogamous divisions as there are totems in the tribes, which reckon descent in the female line; children in- heriting the mother's totem only. Corroboration of these statements is desirable, as the tribes implicated are peculiarly " primitive," and theirs may be the oldest extant set of marriage rules. The existence of two or more main exogamous divisions, named or unnamed, is found among peoples where there are either no totem kins, or where they have fallen into the back- ground, as in parts of Melanesia, among the Todas and Meitchis of India and the Wanika in East Africa.6 An extraordinary case is reported from South Australia where people must marry in their own phratry, while their children belong to the opposite phratry.7 This awaits corroboration. We now see some of the numerous varieties which prevail in the marriage rules connected with the totems. Even among a tribe whose members, it is reported, may marry into their own phratries, it appears that they must not marry within their own totem kins. This is, indeed, the rule wherever totemic societies are found in anything approaching to what we deem their most archaic constitution as in south-east Australia and some tribes of North America. Exogamy: The Arunta Abnormality. — Meanwhile, in Central Australia, in the Arunta " nation," the rule forbidding marriage within the totem kin does not exist. Totems here are not, as everywhere else, inherited from either parent, but a child is of what we may call " the local totem " of the place where its mother first became conscious of its life within her. The idea is that the spirits of a primal race, in groups each of one totem only (" Alcheringa folk"), haunt various localities; or spirits (ratapa) emanating from these primal beings do so; they enter into passing married women, and are incarnated and born again.8 2 Morgan, Ancient Society, p. 174. * Mathew, Eagle Hawk and Crow; Schmidt, Anthropos (1909). 4 See Lang, The Secret of the Totem, pp. 154, 170; and N. W. Thomas, Kinship and Marriage in Australia, pp. 9, 31. 6 Howitt, Native Tribes of South-East Australia, pp. 93, 181, 188; Spencer and Gillen, Native Tribes of Central Australia, pp. 60, 61, Northern Tribes, p. 71 ; Lang, Anthropological Essays; Tyler's Fest- schrift, pp. 203-210. 8 Thomas, ut supra, p. 10. See, for numerous examples, T. G. Frazer, Totemism (1910). 7 MS. of Mrs Bates. 8 It is necessary to state here the sources of our information about the central, north, north-western and south-eastern forms of TOTEMISM 81 Thus if a woman, whatever her own totem, and whatever her husband's may be, becomes conscious of her child's life in a known centre of Wild Cat spirits, her child's totem is Wild Cat, and so with all the rest. As a consequence, a totem sometimes here appears in what the people call the " wrong " (i.e. not the original) exogamous division; and persons may marry within their own totem name, if that totem be in the " right " exogamous division, which is not theirs. Each totem spirit is among the Arunta associated with an amulet or churinga of stone; these are of various shapes, and are decorated with concentric circles, spirals, cupules, and other archaic patterns. These amulets are only used in this sense by the Arunta nation and their neighbours the Kaitish, " and it is this idea of spirit individuals associated with churinga and resident in certain definite spots that lies at the root of the present totemism. About the central Arunta tribe with its neighbours, the Urabunna, we have the evidence very carefully collected by Mr Gillen, a protector of the aborigines, and Professor Baldwin Spencer (Native Tribes of Central Australia). Concerning the peoples north from the centre to the Gulf of Carpentaria, the same scholars furnish a copious account in their Northern Tribes. These two explorers had the confidence of the blacks ; witnessed their most secret ceremonies, magical and initiatory; and collected their legends. Their, books, however, contain no philological information as to the structure and interrelation of the dialects, information which is rarely to be found in the works of English observers in Australia. As far as appears, the observers conversed with the tribes only in " pidgin English." If this be the case that lingua franca is current among some eighteen central-northern tribes speaking various native dialects. We are told nothing about the languages used in each case; perhaps the Arunta men who accompanied the expedition arranged a system of interpreters. For the Dieri tribe, neighbours of the Urabunna, we have copious evidence in Native Tribes of South-East Australia by the late Mr A. W. Howitt, who studied the peoples for forty years; was made free of their initiatory ceremonies; and obtained intelligence from settlers in regions which he did not visit. We have also legends with Dieri texts and translations from the Rev. Mr Siebert, a mis- sionary among the Dieri. That tribe appears now to exist in a very dwindled condition under missionary supervision. The accounts of tribes from the centre to the south-east by Mr R. E. Mathew, are scattered in many English, Australian and American learned periodicals. Mr Mathew has given a good deal of information about some of the dialects. His statements as to the line of descent and on other points among certain tribes are at variance with those of Messrs Spencer and Gillen (see an article by Mr A. R. Brown in Man, March 1910). Mr Mathew, however, does not enable us to test the accuracy of his informants among the northern tribes, which is unfortunate. For the Aranda (or Arunta) of a region apparently not explored by Messrs Spencer and Gillen, and for the neighbouring Loritja tribe, we have Die Aranda und Loritja Stamme, two volumes by the Rev. C. Strehlow (Baer, Frankfurt am Main, 1907, 1908). Mr Strehlow is a German missionary who, after working among the Dieri and acquiring their language, served for many years among a branch of the Arunta (the Aranda), differing considerably in dialect, myths and usages from the Arunta of Messrs Spencer and Gillen. In some points, for example as to the primal ancestors and the spirits diffused by them for incarnation in human bodies, the Aranda and Loritja are more akin to the northern tribes than to Mr Spencer's Arunta. In other myths they resemble some south-eastern tribes reported on by Mr Howitt. Unlike the Arunta of Messrs Spencer and Gillen, but like the Arunta described by Mr Gillen earlier in The Horn Expedition, they believe in " a magnified non-natural man," Altjira, with a goose-foot, dwelling in the heavens. Unlike the self-created Atnatu of the Kaitish of Messrs Spencer and Gillen, he is not said to have created things, or to take any concern about human beings, as Atnatu does in matters of ceremonial. Mr Strehlow gives Aranda and Lortija texts in the original, with translations and philological remarks. Mr Frazer, in his Totemism, makes no use of Mr Strehlow's information (save in a single instance). To us it seems worthy of study. His reason for this abstention is that, in a letter to him (Melbourne, March 10, 1908), Mr Spencer says that for at least twenty years the Lutheran Missions have taught the natives " that altjira means ' god ' ; have taught that their sacred ceremonies and secular dances are ' wicked ' ; have prohibited them, and have never seen them. Flour and tobacco, &c., are only given to natives who attend church and school. Natives have been married who, according to native customary law, belong to groups to which marriage is forbidden. For these reasons Mr Frazer cannot attempt " to filter the native liquor clear of its alien sediment," (Totemism, i. 186, note 2). Against this we may urge that, as regards the goose-footed sky- dweller, Mr Strehlow reports less of his active interest in human affairs than Mr Gillen does concerning his " Great Ulthaana of the totemic system of the Arunta," says Messrs Spencer and Gillen.1 Every Arunta born incarnates a pre-existent primal spirit attached to one of the stone churinga dropped by primal totemic beings, all of one totem in each case, at a place called an oknanikilla. Each child belongs to the totem of the primal beings of the place, where the mother became aware of the child's life. Thus the peculiar causes which have produced the unique Arunta licence of marrying within the totem are conspicuously obvious. Contradictory Theories about the Arunta Abnormal Totemism. — At this point theories concerning the origin of totemism begin to differ irreconcilably. Mr Frazer, Mr Spencer, and, apparently Dr Rivers, hold that, in Australia at least, totemism was originally " conceptional." It began in the belief by the women that pregnancy was caused by the entrance into them of some spirit associated with a visible object, usually animal or vegetable; while the child born, in each case, was that object. Hence that class of objects was tabued to the child; was its totem, but such totems were not hereditary. Next, for some unknown reason, the tribes were divided into two bodies or segments. The members of segment A may not intermarry; they must marry persons of segment B, and vice versa. Thus were evolved the primal forms of totemism and exogamy now represented in the law of the Arunta nation alone. Here, and here alone, marriage within the totem is permitted. The theory is, apparently, that, in all other exogamous and totemic peoples, totems had been, for various reasons, made hereditary, before exogamy was enforced by the legislator in his wisdom. Thus, all over the totemic world, except in the Arunta nation, the method of the legislator was simply to place one set of totem kins in tribal segment A, and the other in segment B, and make the segments exogamous and intermarrying. Thus it was impossible for any person to marry another of the same totem. This is the theory of Mr Frazer. Upholders of the contradictory system maintain that the Arunta nation has passed through and out of the universal and normal system of hereditary and exogamous totemism into its. present condition, by reason of the belief that children are incarnations of pre-existing animal or vegetable spirits, plus the unique Arunta idea of the connexion of such spirits with their stone churinga. Where this combination of the two beliefs does not occur, there the Arunta non-hereditary and non-exogamous totemism does not occur. It would necessarily arise in any normal tribe which adopted the two Arunta beliefs, which are not " primitive." Arguments against Mr Frazer' s Theory. — There was obviously a time, it is urged, when all totems were, as everywhere else, heavens " among the Arunta. Mr Strehlow's being, Altjira, has a name apparently meaning " mystic " or sacred, which is applied to other things, for example to the inherited maternal totem of each native. His names for Altjira (god) and for the totemic ancestors (totem gods), are inappropriate, but may be discounted. Many other tribes who are discussed by Mr Frazer have been long under missionary influence as well as the Aranda. According to Mr Frazer the Dieri tribe had enjoyed a German Lutheran mission station (since 1866) for forty-four years up to 1910. About 150 Dieri were alive in 1909 (Totemism, iii. 344). Nevertheless the Dieri myths published by Mr Siebert in the decadence of the tribe, and when the remnant was under missionaries, show no " alien sediment." Nor do the traditions of Mr Strehlow's Aranda. Their traditions are closely akin, now to those of the Arunta, now to those of the northern tribes, now to those of the Euahlayi of Mrs Langloh Parker (The Euahlayi Tribe) in New South Wales, and once more to those of Mr Howitt's south-eastern tribes. There is no trace of Christian influence in the Aranda and Loritja matter, no vestige of " alien " (that is, of European) " sediment," but the account of Atnatu among the Kaitish reported on by Messrs Spencer and Gillen reads like a savage version of Milton's " Fall of the Angels " in Paradise Lost. For these reasons we do not reject the information of Mr Strehlow, who is master of several tribal languages, and, of course, does not encourage wicked native rites by providing supplies of flour, tobacco, &c., during the performances, as Mr Howitt and others say that they found it necessary to do. Sceptical colonists have been heard to aver that natives will go on performing rites as, long as white men will provide supplies. 1 Native Tribes of Central Australia, p. 123. 82 TOTEMISM in what the Arunta call "the right" divisions; Arunta, that is, were so arrayed that no totem existed in more than one division. Obliged, as row, to marry out of their own exogamous division (one of four sub-classes among the Arunta) into one of the four sub-classes of the opposite side, no man could then find in it a woman of his own totem to marry. But when Arunta ceased to be hereditary, and came to be acquired, as now, by the local accident of the totem spirits — all, in each case, of one totem name, which haunt the supposed place of a child's conception — • some totems inevitably would often get out of their original sub-class into another, and thus the same totems are in several divisions. But granting that a man of division A may legally marry a woman of division B, he is not now prevented from doing so because his totem (say Wild Cat) is also hers. His ..or hers has strayed, by accident of supposed place of conception, out of its " right " into its " wrong " division. The words " right " and " wrong " as here used by the Arunta make it certain that they still perceive the distinction, and that, before the Arunta evolved the spiritual view of conception, they had, like other people, their totems in each case confined to a single main exogamous division of their tribe, and therefore no persons could then marry into their own totems. But when the theory of spiritual conception arose, and was combined, in the Arunta set of tribes alone (it is common enough elsewhere in northern and western Australia), with the churinga doctrine, which gave totems by accident, these two factors, as Messrs Spencer and Gillen say, became the causes — •" lie at the root " — of the present Arunta system by which persons may marry others of " the right " division, but of " the wrong " totem. That system is strictly confined to the group of tribes (Ilpirra, Loritja, Unmaterja, Kaitish, Arunta) which constitute " the Arunta nation." Elsewhere the belief in spiritual conception widely prevails, but not the belief in the connexion of spirits of individuals with the stone churinga of individuals. Consequently the Arunta system of marriage within the totem exists nowhere, and the non-exogamous non-hereditary totem exists nowhere, except in the Arunta region. Everywhere else hereditary totems are exogamous.1 Thus the practice of acquiring the totem by local accident is absolutely confined to five tribes where the churinga doctrine coexists with it. That the churinga belief, coexistent with the spiritual theory of conception, is of relatively recent origin is a demonstrable fact. Had it always been present among the Arunta the inevitable result, in the course of ages, would be the scattering of the totems almost equally, as chance would scatter them among the eight exogamous divisions. This can be tested by experiment. Take eight men, to represent the eight exogamous divisions, and set them apart in two groups of four. Take four packs of cards, 208 cards, to represent the Arunta totems, which are over 200 in number. Deal the cards round in the usual way to each of the eight men; each will receive 26 cards. It will not be found that group A has " the great majority " of spades and clubs, while group B has " the great majority " of diamonds and hearts, and neither group will have " the great majority " of court cards. Accident does not work in that way. But while accident alone now determines the totem to which an Arunta shall belong, nevertheless " in the Arunta, as a general rule, the great majority of the members of any one totemic group belong to one moiety of the tribe; but this is by no means universal . . . " — that is, of the totems the great majority in each case, as a rule, belongs to one or the other set of four exogamous sub-classes.2 The inference is obvious. While chance has now placed only the small minority of each totem in all or several of the eight exogamous divisions, the great majority of totems is in one or another of the divisions. This great majority cannot come by chance, as Arunta totems now come; consequently it is but lately that chance has determined the totem of each individual. Had chance from the first been the determining cause, each totem 1 N.T.C.A.p. 257; cf. Frazer, Totemism, i. 200-201. 1 Northern Tribes, pp. 151 sqq. would not be fairly equally present in each of the two sets of four exogamous divisions. But determination by accident has only existed long enough to affect " as a general rule " a small minority of cases. " The great majority " of totems remain in what is recognized as " the right," the original divisions, as elsewhere universally. Arunta myth sometimes supports, sometimes contradicts, the belief that the totems were originally limited, in each case, to one or other division only, and, being self- contradictory, has no historic value. A further proof of our point is that the northern neighbours of the Arunta, the Kaitish, have only partially accepted Arunta ideas, religious and social. Unlike the Arunta they have a creative being, Atnatu, from whom half of the population descend; the other half were evolved out of totemic forms.3 In the same way the Kaitish totems " are more strictly divided between the two moieties " (main exogamous divisions) " of the tribe."4 Consequently a man may marry a woman of his own totem if she be in the right exogamous division. " She is not actually forbidden to him, as a wife becomes of this identity and totem, as she would be in the Warramunga neighbouring tribe . . ." " It is a very rare thing for a man to marry a woman of the same totem as himself,"6 naturally, for the old rule holds, in sentiment, and a totem is still very rarely in the wrong division. The Arunta system of accidental determination of the totem has as yet scarcely produced among the Kaitish any of its natural and important effects. This view of the case seems logical: Arunta non-exogamous non-hereditary totemism is the result, as Messrs Spencer and Gillen show, of the theory of spiritual conception and the theory of the relation of the spirit part of each individual to his churinga. These two beliefs have already caused a minority of Arunta totems to get out of the original and into the wrong exogamous Arunta divisions. The process is not of old standing; if it were, all totems would now be fairly distributed among the divisions by the laws of chance. In the Kaitish tribe, on the other hand, the processes must be of very recent operation, for they have only begun to produce their necessary effects. The totemism of the Arunta is thus the reverse of " primitive," and has but slightly affected the Kaitish. Precisely the opposite view of the facts is taken by Mr Frazer in his erudite and exhaustive work Totemism. In the Kaitish, he writes, " we may detect the first stage in the transition from promiscuous marriage and fortuitous descent of the totem to strict exogamy of the totem clans and strict heredity of the totems in the paternal line."6 By "promiscuous marriage," marriage within or without the totem, at pleasure, is obviously intended, for the Arunta do not marry " promiscuously " — do not marry their nearest kin. How, on Mr Frazer's theory, was the transition from the condition of the Arunta to that of the Kaitish made? If the Kaitish were once in the actual Arunta stage of totemism, how did their totems come now to be much more strictly divided between the two moieties, though " the division is not so absolute as amongst the Urabunna in the south and the tribes farther north . . ."? How did this occur? The Kaitish have not made totems hereditary by law; they are acquired by local accident. They have not made a rule that all totems should, as among the more northern neighbours of the Arunta, be regimented so that no totem occurs in more than one division: to this rule there are exceptions. A man " is not actually forbidden " to marry a woman of his own totem provided she be of " the right division," but it is clear that he " does not usually do so." This we can explain as the result of a survival in manners of the old absolute universal prohibition. Meanwhile our view of the facts makes all the phenomena seem natural and intelligible in accordance with the statement of the observers, Messrs Spencer and Gillen, that the cause of the unique non-hereditary non-exogamous totems of the Arunta is the combination of the churinga spiritual belief with the belief in spiritual conception. This cause, though now present among ' Northern Tribes, pp. 153, 154, 175. * Ibid. p. 152. 6 Ibid. p. 175. * Totemism, i. 244. TOTEMISM the Kaitish, has, so far, operated but faintly. We have been explicit on these points because on them the whole problem of the original form of totemism hinges. In our view, for the reasons stated, the Arunta system of non-exogamous non-hereditary totemism is a peculiarity of comparatively recent institution. But Mr Frazer, and the chief observer of the phenomena, Mr Spencer, consider the Arunta system, non-exogamous and non- hereditary, to be the most archaic form of totemism extant. As to non-hereditary, we find another report of the facts in Die Aranda und Loritja Stiimme, by the Rev. Mr Strehlow, who has a colloquial and philological knowledge of the language of these tribes. As he reports, among other things, that the Aranda (Arunta) in his district inherit their mother's totems, in addition to their " local totems," they appear to retain an archaic feature from which their local totem system and marriage rules are a departure.1 The hereditary maternal totem is, in Mr Strehlow's region, the protective being (altjira) of each Arunta individual. Are the Arunta " Primitive " or not? — In the whole totemic controversy the question as to whether the non-exogamous non-hereditary totemism of the Arunta or the hereditary and exogamous totemism of the rest of Australia and of totemic mankind, be the earlier, is crucial. That Arunta totemism is a freak or " sport," it is argued, is made probable first by the fact that the Arunta inherit all things hereditable in the male line, whereas inheritance in the female descent is earlier. (To this question we return; see below, Male and Female Lines of Descent.) M. Van Gennep argues that tribes in contact, one set having female, the other male, descent, " like the Arunta have combined the systems."2 But several northern tribes with male descent of the totem which are not in contact with tribes of female descent show much stronger traces of the " combination " than the Arunta, who intermarry freely with a tribe of female descent, the Urabunna; while the Urabunna, though intermarrying with the Arunta who inherit property and tribal office in the male line, show no traces of " combination." Thus the effects occur where the alleged causes are not present; and the alleged causes, in the case of the Urabunna and Arunta, do not produce the effects. Next the Arunta have no names for their main exogamous divisions, these names being a very archaic feature which in many tribes with sub-classes tend to disappear. In absence of phratry names the Arunta are remote from the primitive. M. Van Gennep replies that perhaps the Arunta have not yet made the names, or have not yet borrowed them. This is also the view of Mr Frazer. As he says, the Southern Arunta lived under the rule of eight classes, but of these four were anonymous, till the names for them were borrowed from the north. The people can thus have anonymous exogamous divisions; the two main divisions, or phratries, of the Arunta may, therefore, from the first, have been anonymous. To this the reply is that people borrow, if they can, what they need. The Arunta found names for their four hitherto anony- mous classes to be convenient, so they borrowed them. But when once class-names did, as they do, all that is necessary, the Arunta had no longer any use for the names of the two primary main divisions: these were forgotten; there is nothing to be got by borrowing that; while four Arunta " sub-classes " are gaining their names, the " classes " (phratries or main divisions) have lost them. It is perfectly logical to hold that while things useful, but hitherto anonymous, are gaining names, other things, now totally useless, are losing their names. One process is as natural as the other. In all Australia tribes with two main divisions and no sub-classes, the names of the two main divisions are found, because the names are useful. In several tribes with named sub-classes, which now do the work previously thrown on the main divisions, the names of the main divisions are unknown: the main divisions being now useless, and superseded by the sub- classes. The absence of names of the two main divisions in the Arunta is merely a result, often found, of the rise of the sub- 1 Strehlow, ii. 57 (1908). 2 Mythes et legendes d'Australie, p. xxxii. classes, which, as Mr Frazer declares, are not primitive, but the result of successive later legislative acts of division.' Manifestly on this point the Arunta are at the farthest point from the earliest organization: their loss of phratry names is the consequence of this great advance from the " primitive." All Arunta society rests on a theory of reincarnated spirits, a theory minutely elaborated. M Van Gennep asks " why should this belief not be primitive? " Surely neither the belief in spirits, nor the elaborate working out of the belief connecting spirits with manufactured stone amulets, can have been primitive. Nobody will say that peculiar stone amulets and the Arunta belief about spirits associated with them are primitive. To this M Van Gennep makes no reply.4 The Arunta belief that children are spirit-children (ralapa) incarnated is very common in the other central and northern tribes, and, according to Mrs Bates, in Western Australia; Dr Roth reports the same for parts of Queensland. It is alleged by Messrs Spencer and Gillen that the tribes holding this belief deny any connexion between sexual unions and procreation. Mr Strehlow, on the other hand, says that in his region the older Arunta men understand the part of the male in procreation ; and that even the children of the Loritja and Arunta understand, in the case of animals.5 (Here corroboration is desirable and European influence may be asserted.) Dr Roth says that the Tully River blacks of Queensland admit procreation for all other animals, which have no Koi or soul, but not for men, who have souls. (Their theory of human birth, therefore, merely aims primarily at accounting for the spiritual part of man.)6 According to Mrs Bates, some tribes in the north of South Australia, tribes with the same " class " names as the Arunta, hold that to have children a man must possess two spirits (ranee). If he has but one, he remains childless. If he has two, he can dream of an animal, or other object, which then passes into his wife, and is born as a child, the animal thus becoming the child's totem. This belief does not appear to apply to reproduc- tion in the lower animals. It is a spiritual theory of the begetting of a soul incarnated. If a man has but one spirit, he cannot give one to a child, therefore he is childless. It is clear that this, and all other systerr s in which reproduction is explained in spiritual terms, can only arise among peoples whose whole mode of thinking is intensely " animistic." It is also plain that all such myths answer two questions — (i) How does a being of flesh and spirit acquire its spiritual part? — (2) How is it that every human being is in mystical rcpport with an animal, plant, or other object, the totem? Manifestly the second question could not arise and need answer before mankind were actually totemists. It may be added that in the south of Western Australia the name for the mythical " Father of All " (a being not there worshipped, though images of him are made and receive some cult at certain licentious festivals) and the name for " father-stock " is maman, which Mrs Bates finds to be the native term for membrum virile. All this appears to be proof of understand- ing of the male part in reproduction, though that understanding is now obscured by speculation about spirits. The question arises then, is the ignorance of procreation, where that ignorance exists, " primitive," and is the Arunta totemism also " primitive," being conditioned, as we are told it is, by the unique belief in some churinga? Or is the ignorance due to attempts of native thinkers to account for the spirit in man as a pre-existing entity that has been from the beginning? The former view is that of Messrs Spencer and Gillen, and Mr Frazer. For the latter see Lang, Anthropological Essays presented to E. B. Tylor, pp. 210-218. We can hardly call people primitive because they have struggled with the problem " how has material man an indwelling spirit?" Theories of the Origin of Totemic Exogamy. — Since the word " exogamy " as a name for the marriage systems connected (as a rule) with totemism was used by J. F. McLennan in his. 8 Totemism, i. 282, 283. 4 Van Gennep, pp. xxxiii-xxxv. 6 Loritja Stiimme, p. 52, note 7. • Roth, Bulletin, No. 5, pp. 17, 22, 65, 81. 84 TOTEMISM Primitive Marriage (1866), theories of the origin of exogamy have been rife and multifarious. All, without exception, are purely conjectural. One set of disputants hold that man (whatever his original condition may have been) was, when he first passed an Act of Exogamy, a member of a tribe. Hewitt's term for this tribe was " the undivided commune." It had, according to him, its inspired medicine-man, believed to be in communication with some superior being. It had its pro- bouleutic council of elders or " headmen " and its general assembly. Such was man's political condition.1 It is not dis- tinguishable from that of many modern Australian tribes. Other tribes, said by some to be the most primitive, the Arunta and their neighbours, pay no attention to the dictates of a superior being, and the Arunta of Spencer and Gillen seem to know no such entity, though as Atnatu, Tukura, Altjira, and " the Great Ulthaana of the heavens," he exists in a dwindled form among the Kaitish, Loritja and outlying portions of the Arunta tribe. In religion Howitt's early men were already in advance of Mr Spencer's Arunta. Socially, man, at this date, according to Howitt, at first left the relations of the sexes wholly unregulated; the nearest kinsfolk by blood coupled at will, though perfectly aware that they were, at least on the maternal side, actual brothers and sisters, parents and children. Upholders of the first theory, that man lived promiscuously in a tribal state with legislative assemblies and then suddenly reformed promiscuity away, must necessarily differ in their opinion as to the origins of totems and exogamy from the friends of the second theory, who believe that man never was "pro- miscuous," and given to sexual union with near kin. Why man, on the first theory — familiar as he was with unions of the nearest kin — suddenly abolished them is explained in four or five different ways. Perhaps the most notable view is Mr Frazer's; he easily confutes, in thirty-five pages, the other hypotheses. 2 Man saw, or thought he saw, injurious consequences to the wedded near- related couples, and therefore he prohibited, first, unions between mothers and sons, and brothers and sisters.3 But, in his fourth volume, Mr Frazer sees conclusive objections to this view4 and prefers another. Some peoples, far above the estate of savagery, believe that human incest blights and sterilizes the crops, women and animals. " If any such belief were entertained by the founders of exogamy, they would clearly have been perfectly sufficient motives for instituting the system, for they would perfectly explain the horror with which incest has been regarded and the extreme severity with which it has been punished."6 That is to say, people had a horror and hatred of incest because they supposed that it blighted the crops and other things. Mr Frazer had previously written (iv. 108) " It is important to bear steadily in mind that the dislike of certain marriages must always have existed in the minds of the people, or at least of their leaders, before that dislike, so to say, received legal sanction by being embodied in an exogamous rule." Again (iv. 112) " There had, for some reason unknown to us, been long growing up a strong aversion to consanguineous unions " — before any legislative bar was raised against them. This is insisted on. The prohibition " must have answered to certain general sentiments of what was right and proper " (iv. 121). But here the theorist has to explain the origin of the strong aversion, the general sentiment that unions of near kin are wrong and improper. But Mr Frazer does not seem to explain the point that most needs explanation. That " strong aversion," that " general sentiment," cannot have arisen from a growing belief that unions of close kin spoiled the crops or the natural resources of the country. That superstition could only arise as a consequence of the horror and aversion with which " incest " was regarded. Now no idea corresponding to " incest " could arise before unions of near kin were deemed abominable. When once such unions were thought hateful to gods and men, and an upsetting of the cosmic balance, then, but not till then, they might be regarded as injurious to the crops. All such beliefs are sanctions of ideas already in strong 1 N.T.S.E.A. pp. 89, 90. » Ibid. i. 165. 1 Totemism, iv. 75-120. 4 Ibid. iv. 155, 156. 6 Ibid. iv. 158. force. The idea that such or such a thing is wrong begets the prohibition, followed by the sanction — the belief that the practice of the thing is injurious in a supernormal way: where that belief exists. We do not know it in Australia, for example. A belief that close sexual unions were maleficent cosmic influences could not possibly arise previous to, and could not then cause, " the dislike of certain marriages "; " the strong aversion to consanguineous unions " — which existed already. This latest guess of Mr Frazer at the origin of the idea of " incest " — of the abomination of certain unions — is untenable. What he has to explain is the origin of the dislike, the aversion, the horror. Once that has arisen, as he himself observes, the prohibition follows, and then comes the supernormal sanction. Thus no theory of exogamous rules as the result of legislation to prevent the unions of persons closely akin, can produce, or has produced, any reason for the aversion to such unions arising among people to whom, on the theory, they were familiar. Mr Frazer has confuted the guesses of MacLennan, Morgan, Durkheim and others; but his own idea is untenable. The Supposed Method of Reform. — On Mr Frazer's theory the reformers first placed half of the mothers of the tribe, with their children, in division A; and the rest of the mothers, with their children, in division B. The members of each division (phratry) must marry out of it into the other, and thus no man could marry his sister or mother. (The father could marry his daughter, but in tribes with no exogamous explicit rule against the union, he never does.) Later the two divisions were bisected each into a couple of pairs (classes) preventing marriage between father and daughter; and another resegmentation prohibited the unions of more distant relations. These systems, from the simplest division into two phratries, to the more complex with two " sub-classes " in each phratry, and the most elaborate of all with four sub-classes in each phratry, exist in various tribes. Environment and climate have nothing to do with the matter. The Urabunna and the Arunta live in the same climate and environment, and inter- marry. The Urabunna have the most primitive, the Arunta have the most advanced of these organizations. While the rules are intended to prevent consanguineous marriages, the names of the " sub-classes " (when translatable, the names of animals) cannot perhaps be explained. They have a totemic appearance. Totems in Relation to Exogamy. — So far, in this theory nothing has been said of totems, though it is an all but universal rule that people of the same totem may not intermarry, even if the lovers belong to tribes separated by the breadth of the continent. In fact, according to the hypothesis which has been set forth, totems, though now exogamous, played no original part in the evolution of exogamy. They came in by accident, not by design, and dropped into their place in a system carefully devised. Originally, on this theory, a totem came to a child, not as is usual now, by inheritance, but by pure accident; the mother supposing that any object which caught her attention at the moment when she first felt the life of her child, or any article of food which she had recently eaten, became incarnate in her, so that the emu (say) which she saw, or had eaten of, was her child. He or she was an Emu man or woman, by totem was an Emu. Certain localities, later, were somehow associated each with one given object — cat, kangaroo, grub, or anything else, and now " local totems " (if the phrase may be used) took the place of " conceptional totems," as among the Arunta. The child inevitably was of the local totem and its supposed place of conception. Finally all tribes except the Arunta " nation " made the totem hereditary, either from mother or father; and as the mother or father, an Emu, was in division A, so was the child, and he or she must marry out of that division into the other, B.' The objections taken to this theory are now to be stated: ' Frazer, Totemism, i. 157-167. TOTEMISM (i.) The theory can by no possibility apply to tribes with three or more main exogamous divisions or phratries, such as we find in North America. In a three-phratry tribe we are reduced to suppose that there were three sexes, or resort to some other solution not perhaps compatible with the theory, (ii.) We have no evidence that any totemic people, except the Navajoes, think the closest sexual unions injurious to the parties or their offspring. The theory is thus merely extracted from the facts — certain unions are forbidden, therefore they must have been deemed injurious. Now, even if they were generally thought injurious, the belief would be a mere inference from the fact that they were forbidden, (iii.) The supposed original legisla- tive exogamous division produced a very different effect than that said to be aimed at, namely, the prohibition of marriage between brothers and sisters. It forbade to every man marriage with half the women of his tribe, most of whom were not, even in the wide native use of the term, his " tribal " sisters, that is, women in a man's phratry of the same status as his own sisters. Such relationships, of course, could not exist before they were created by the supposed Act of Division. It would have been easy to prohibit marriages of brothers with sisters directly, just as, though no exogamous rule forbids, the father, in tribes of female descent, is directly forbidden to marry his daughters. The natives can take a simple instead of a bewilder- ing path. To this natural objection Mr Frazer replies:1 " If we assume, as we have every right to do, that the founders of exo- gamy in Australia recognized the classificatory system of rela- tionship, and the classificatory system of relationship only, we shall at once perceive that what they intended to prevent was not merely the marriage of a man with his sister, his mother, or his daughter in the physical sense in which we use these terms; their aim was to prevent his marriage with his sister, his mother and his daughter in the classificatory sense of these terms; that is, they intended to place bars to marriage not between individuals merely but between the whole groups of persons who designated their group, not their individual relationships, their social, not their consanguineous ties, by the names of father and mother, brother and sister, son and daughter. And in this intention the founders of exogamy succeeded per- fectly." Mr Frazer's theory of the origin of exogamy appears now to waver. It was2 that the primal bisection of the tribe was " deliberately devised and adopted as a means of preventing the marriage, at first, of brother with sisters. . . ." Here was the place to say, if it was then intended to say, that the Australians " recognized the classificatory system of rela- tionships only." As a matter of fact they recognize both the consanguine and the classificatory systems. It is not the case that " the savage Australian, it may be said with truth, has no idea of relationships as we understand them, and does not discriminate between his actual father and mother and the men and women who belong to the group, each member of which might have lawfully been either his father or his mother, as the case may be." This statement is made inadvertently and unfortunately by Messrs Spencer and Gillen,3 but it is contradicted by their own observations. An Arunta can tell you, if asked, which of all the men whom he calls " father " is his very own father.4 The Dieri have terms for " great " (actual) and " little " (tribal) father, and so for other relationships. In Arunta orgies a woman's " tribal " " fathers " and " brothers " and " sons " are admitted to her embraces; her actual father and brothers and sons are excluded.6 Thus, if the prohibition be based on aversion to unions of persons closely akin by blood, as the actual father is excluded, the actual father, among the Arunta, is, or has been, amongst that people, regarded as near of blood to his daughters. The Arunta are ignorant, we are told, of the part of the male in procreation. Be it so, but there has been a time when they were not ignorant, and when the father was recognized as of the nearest kin by blood to his daughters. If 1 Totemism, i. 288. 1 Northern Tribes, pp. 95 seq. ; 4 Central Tribes, p. 57. 2 Ibid. i. 163. Totemism, i. 289. 6 Ibid. p. 97. not, and if the prohibition is based on hatred of unions of close kin, why is the father excluded? Nothing, in short, can be more certain than that Australian tribes distinguish between " social " or " tribal " relations on the one hand, and close consanguine relations on the other. Among the Arunta office is inherited by a man from his mother's husband, his father quern nuptiae demonstrant; not from any " tribal " father.6 Mr Frazer7 apparently meant in his earlier statement that brothers and sisters consanguine, and these only, were to be excluded from intermarriage, because he went on to say that science cannot decide as to whether the closest interbreeding is injurious to the offspring of healthy parents, however near in blood; and that very low savages could not discover what is hidden from modern science. He had therefore marriages of consanguine brothers and sisters present to his mind: " the closest interbreeding." Brothers and sisters were finally for- bidden, on this theory, to intermarry, not because of any dread of injury to the offspring. " The only alternative open to us seems to be to infer that these unions were forbidden because they were believed to be injurious to the persons engaged in them, even when they were both in perfect health."8 These " incestuous unions " are between brothers and sisters, mothers and sons. Here brothers and sisters consanguine, children of the same mother in each case, certainly appear to be intended. Who else, indeed, can be intended? But presently9 we are to assume that the Australians, before they made the first exogamous division of the tribe " recognized the classificatory system of relationship, and the classificatory system only." They meant, now, to bar marriage between " whole groups of persons," related by " social, not consanguineous ties." But this seems to be physically impossible. These " whole groups " never existed, and never could exist, as far as we can see, till they were called into being by the legislative division of the tribe into two exogamous phratries — which had not yet been made. How could a man call a whole group of women " nupa," as at present (the word being applied to his wife and to all women of the opposite phratry to his whom he might legally marry) before the new law had constituted such a group? In what sense, again, were all women of a certain status called my " sisters " (like my actual sisters) before the new law made a new group of them — in regard to marriage as sacred as my own sisters now were to me? It cannot be said that all women of my status were called, collectively, my " sisters " before the new division of the tribe and new rule arose, because previously, all women of my status in the tribe have been my " sisters." Who else could be collectively my " sisters "? If to marry a " sister " were reckoned dangerous to her and to me, I must have been forbidden to marry all the women of my status in the tribe. How could a law which merely halved the number of my " sisters " remove the unknown danger from half of them? If any women except my actual sisters were, before the new rule, reckoned as socially my sisters, all women in the tribe of a certain status must have been so reckoned. If all dangerous, I must marry none of them. But by the new rule, I may marry half of them! Why have they ceased to be dangerous? If the theory be that originally only brothers and sisters con- sanguine were thought dangerous to each other in sexual rela- tions, and the superstition was later extended so as to include all " classificatory " brothers and sisters, who were in these days (before the exogamous division) classificatory brothers and sisters? How and for what reason were some marriageable girls in the tribe classificatory sisters of a young man while others, equally young and marriageable, were not ? The classi- ficatory brothers and sisters must have been all the marriageable youth of both sexes in a generation, in the tribe. But then if all the youth of a generation, of both sexes, were classificatory brothers and sisters, and if therefore their unions were dangerous to themselves, or to the crops, the danger could not be prevented by dividing them into two sets, and 6 See Proceedings of British Academy, iii. 4. Lang, "^Origin of Terms of Human Relationships." 7 Totemism, i. 163. " Ibid. i. 165. • Ibid. i. 288. 86 TOTEMISM allowing each set of brothers to marry each set of sisters. The only way to parry the danger was to force all these brothers and sisters to marry out of the local tribe into another local tribe with the same superstition. When that was done, the two local tribes, exogamous and intermarrying, were constituted into the two phratries of one local tribe. But that is not the theory of observers on the spot: their hypothesis is that a promiscuous and communistic local tribe, for no known or conceivable reason, bisected itself into two exogamous and intermarrying " moieties." On the face of it, it is a fatal objection to the theory that when men dwelt in an undivided commune they recognized no system of relationships but the classificatory, yet were well aware of consanguineous relationships; were determined to prohibit the marriages of people in such relationships; and included in the new prohibition people in no way consanguineous, but merely of classificatory kin. The reformers, by the theory, were perfectly able to distinguish consanguineous kinsfolk, so that they might easily have forbidden them to intermarry; while if all the members of the tribe were not in the classificatory degrees of relationship, who were? How were persons in classifi- catory relationships with each other discriminated from other members of the tribe who were not? They were easily discrim- inated as soon as the phratries were instituted, but, we think, not before. Term of Classificatory Relationships. — Here it is necessary to say a few words about " classificatory " terms of relationship. Among many peoples the terms or names which with us denote relationships of consanguinity or affinity, such as Father, Mother, Brother, Sister, Son, Daughter, Husband, Wife, are applied both to the individuals actually consanguineous in these degrees, and also to all the other persons in the speaker's own main exogamous division or phratry who are of the same " age-grade " and social status as the Father, Mother, Brother, Sister, Son, Daughter, Husband, Wife, and so forth. As a man thus calls all the women whom he might legally have married by the same term as Re calls his wife, and calls all children of persons of his own " age-grade," class and status by the same name as he calls his own children, many theorists hold this to be a proof of the origin of the nomenclature " in a system of group marriage in which groups of men exercised marital rights over groups of women, and the limitation of one wife to one husband was unknown. Such a system would explain very simply why every man gives the name of wife to a whole group of women, and every woman gives the name of husband to a whole group of men," and so on with all such collective terms of relationship.1 Certainly this is a very simple explanation. But if we wished to explain why every Frenchman applies the name which he gives to his " wife " (femme) to every " woman " in the world, it would be rather simpler than satisfactory to say that this nomenclature arose when the French people lived in absolute sexual promiscuity. The same reasoning applies to English " wife," German Weib, meaning " woman," and so on in many languages. Moreover the explanation, though certainly very simple, is not " the only reasonable and probable explanation." Suppose that early man, as in a hypothesis of Darwin's, lived, not in large local tribes with the present polity of such tribes in Australia, but in " cyclopean families," where the sire con- trolled his female mates and offspring; and suppose that he, from motives of sexual jealousy, and love of a quiet life, forbade amours between his sons and daughters. Suppose such a society to reach the dimensions of a tribe. The rules that applied to brothers and sisters, mothers and sons, would persist, and the original names for persons in such relationships in the family would be extended, in the tribe, to all persons of the same status: new terms being adopted, or old terms extended, to cover new social relationships created by social laws in a wider society. Another Theory of the Origin of Totemism and Exogamy. — How this would happen may be seen in studying the other hypothesis 1 Totemism, \. 304. of exogamy and totemism.2 Man was at first, as Darwin sup- posed, a' jealous brute who expelled his sons from the neighbour- hood of his women; he thus secured the internal peace of his. fire circle; there were no domestic love-feuds. The sons there- fore of necessity married out — were exogamous. As man became more human, a son was permitted to abide among his kin, but he had to capture a mate from another herd (exogamy). The groups received sobriquets from each other, as Emu, Frog, and so forth, a fact illustrated copiously in the practice of modern and English and ancient Hebrew villages.* The rule was now that marriage must be outside of the local group-name. Frog may not marry Frog, or Emu, Emu. The usual savage superstition which places all folk in mystic rapport with the object from which their names are derived gradually gave a degree of sanctity to Emu, Frog and the rest. They became totems. Perhaps the captured women in' group Emu retained and bequeathed to their children their own group-names; the children were Grubs, Ants, Snakes, &c. in Emu group. Let two such groups, Emu and Kangaroo, tired of fighting for women, make peace with connubium, then we have two phra- tries, exogamous and intermarrying, Emu and Kangaroo, with totem kins within them. (Another hypothesis is necessary if the original rule of all was, as among the Uraburtha and other tribes, that each totem kin mustmarryout of itself into only one other totem kin.4 But we are not sure of the fact of one totem to one totem marriage.) In short, the existence of the two main exogamous divisions in a tribe is the result of an alliance of two groups, already exogamous and intermarrying, not of a deliberate dissection of a promiscuous horde.6 The first objection to this system is that it is not held by observers on the spot, such as Mr Howett and Mr Spencer. But while all the observed facts of these observers are accepted (when they do not contradict their own statements, or are not corrected by fresh observations), theorists are not bound to accept the hypotheses of the observers. Every possible respect is paid to facts of observation. Hypotheses as to a stage of society which no man living has observed may be accepted as freely from Darwin as from Howitt, Spencer and L. Morgan. It is next objected that " the only ground for denying that the elaborate marriage-system" (systems?) "of the Australian aborigines has been devised by them for the purpose which it actually serves, appears to be a preconceived idea that these savages are incapable of thinking out and putting in practice a series of checks on marriage so intricate that many civilized persons lack either the patience or the ability to understand them . . . The truth is that all attempts to trace the origin and growth of human institutions without the intervention of human intelligence and will are radically vicious and foredoomed to failure."* But nobody is denying that the whole set of Australian systems of marriage is the result of human emotions, intelligence and will. Nobody is denying that, in course of time, the aborigines have thought out and by successive steps have elaborated their systems. The only questions are, what were the human motives and needs which, in the first instance, set human intelligence and will to work in these directions; and how, in the first instance, did they work? The answers given to these questions are purely and inevitably hypothetical, whether given by observers or by cloistered students. It is objected, as to the origin of totemism, that too much influence is given to accident, too little to design. The answer is that " accident " plays a great part in all evolution, and that, 5 Lang and Atkinson, Social Origins and Primal Law. Lang, Secret of the Totem. 3 Lang, Social^ Origins and Secret of the Totem. 4 Anthropological Essays, pp. 206-209. 6 This theory, already suggested by the Rev. J. Mathew, and Mr Daniel McLennan, occurred independently to M. Van Gennep, who, in Mythes it leeendes d'Australie, suppressed his chapter on it, after reading The Secret of the Totem. The conclusions were almost identical with those of that work (Op. cit. pp. vi. xxxiv.). The details of the evolution, which are many, may be found in Social Origins and Primal Law, and revised in The Secret of the Totem. 6 Totemism, i. 280, 281. TOTEMISM in the opposed theory, the existence and actual exogamous function of totems is also accidental, arising from ignorance and a peculiar superstition. It is urged that no men would accept a nickname given from without by hostile groups. This is answered by many examples of cases in which tribes, clans, political parties, and, of course, individuals, have accepted sobriquets from without, and even when these were hostile and derisive.1 It is asked, Why, on this theory, are there but two exogamous divisions in the tribe? The reply is that in America there may be three or more: that in the Urabunna there are as many exogamous divisions (dual) as there are totems, and that these, like the main exogamous divisions, go in pairs, because marriage is between two contracting parties.2 It is maintained in this theory that Australian blacks, who are reflective and by no means illogical men, have long ago observed that certain marriages are rigorously barred by their social system, for no obvious reason. Thus a man learns that he must not marry in his own main exogamous division, say Eagle Hawk. He must choose a wife from the opposite division, Crow. She must belong to a certain set of women in Crow, whose tribal status is precisely that, in Crow, of his own sisters, and his " little sisters " (the women of his sister's status) in Eagle Hawk. The reflective tribesman does not know why these rules exist. But he perceives that the marriageable women in his own main division bear the same title as his sisters by blood. He therefore comes to the conclusion that they are all what his own sisters manifestly are, " too near flesh," as the natives say in English; and that the purpose of the rule is to bar marriage to him with all the women who bear the name " sisters " that denotes close consanguinity. Presently he thinks that other kinsfolk, actual, or bearing the same collective title as actual kinsfolk of his, are also " too near flesh," and he goes on to bar them till he reaches the eight class model; or like some south-eastern tribes, drops the whole cumbrous scheme in favour of one much like our own. The reflective savage, in short, acts exactly as the Church did when she extended to cousins the pre-existing Greek and Roman prohibitions against the marriages of very near kin; and, again, extended them still further, to exclude persons not consanguineous at all but called by the same title as real consanguines, " father," " mother " and " child " in " gossipred " — godfather, godmother, godchild. The savage and ecclesiastical processes are parallel and illustrate each other. Probably when a tribe with two main exogamous and intermarrying divisions came into existence in the way which we have indicated, the names used in families for father, mother, daughter, son, husband, wife, brother, sister, were simply extended so as to include, in each case, all persons in the tribe who were now of the same status, socially, with the same rights, restrictions and duties, as had been theirs in the fire-circle before the tribe was made a tribe by the union of two exogamous and previously hostile intermarrying local groups; or two sets of such groups. The process is natural; the wide extension now given to old names of relationships saved the trouble of making new names. Thus we have found a reasonable and probable way of accounting for classificatory terminology without adopting the hypothesis that it arose out of " group- marriage " and asking " But how did group-marriage arise?" There is no accident here, all is deliberate and reflective design, beginning with the purely selfish and peace-loving design of the jealous sire. Meanwhile the totemic prohibition, " no marriage in the same totem name," has been retained and expanded even beyond the tribe, and " however remote the hunting grounds " of two persons, they may not intermarry if their totem name be the same. Such are the two chief opposed theories of the origins of exogamy, and of the connexions of exogamy with totemism. The second does not enjoy the benefit of notice and criticism in Mr Frazer's Totemism. 1 The Secret of the Totem, pp. 128, 13,1. * For other arguments explaining the duality of the divisions see Van Gennep, ut supra, p. xxxiv. and note I. Relations of the Social and Religious Aspects of Totemism. — It is a curious fact (if it be accepted as a fact) that the social aspect of totemism — the prohibition to marry a person of the same hereditary totem name — is sometimes strongest where the " religious " prohibition against killing or eating the totem is weakest; while the highest regard is paid to the totem, or to the god which is supposed to inhabit the totem species, where there is no prohibition on marrying within the totem name. Thus in Australia, where (except in the centre, among the Arunta) almost all tribes prohibit marriages within the totem name, it is scarcely possible to find an instance in which irreligious treatment of the totem, killing or eating it, is (as among many other totemic peoples) thought to be automatically or " reli- giously " punished by illness, death or miscarriage. Religion, in these cases, does not hold that the injured majesty of the totem avenges itself on the malefactor. On the other hand the Samoans, who pay no regard to the sacred animal of each community in the matter of not marrying within his name, believe that he will inflict death if one of his species be eaten — and if no expiatory rite be performed.3 In Samoa, we saw, the so-called totem is the vehicle of a God; in Australia no such idea is found. Meanwhile the offence of marrying within the totem name is nowhere automatically punished in any way except among the American Navajos, where, to make certain, the totem kin also inflicts secular penalties;4 and it is part of the magic of the Intichiuma rites for the behoof of the totem that his kin should eat of him sparingly, as on all occasions they may do. In all other quarters, where marriage within the totem kin is forbidden, the penalty of a breach of law has been death or tribal excom- munication. The offence is secular. The Euahlayi, who never marry within the totem name, " may and do eat their hereditary totems with no ill effects to themselves." 6 This is very common in South Australia. As a rule, however, in Australia some respect is paid to the actual plant or animal, and some Northern tribes who inherit the paternal totem respect it almost as much as the maternal totem. As they also inherit property in the maternal line, it seems clear that they have passed from female to male descent, as regards the totem, but not as regards inheritance.6 Male and Female Descent of the Totem. — It was the almost universal opinion of anthropologists that, in the earliest totemic societies, the totem was inherited from the mother, and that inheritance from the father was a later development. But when the peculiar totemism of the Arunta was discovered, and it was desired to prove that this non-exogamous totemism was the most primitive extant, it was felt to be a difficulty that the Arunta reckon descent of everything hereditable in the male, not the female line. If then, the Arunta were not primitive but advanced, in this matter as well as in their eight sub-classes and ceremonies, how could their totemism be primitive? It would have been easy to reply that a people might be " primitive " in some details though advanced in others — the fact is notorious. But to escape from the dilemma the idea was proposed that neither male nor female descent was more primitive than the other. One tribe might begin with male, one with female descent. Nobody can prove that it was not so, but " whereas evidence of the passage from female to male reckoning may be observed, there is virtually none of a change in the opposite direction." 7 Thus the Worgaia and Northern neighbours of the Arunta, with male descent, have certainly passed through a system of female descent of the totem, and actually inherit property in the female line, while Strehlow's Aranda or Arunta inherit their mothers' totems. Moreover Howitt shows us at least one tribe 8 Turner, Samoa, p. 31, sqq. 4 Bourke, Snake Dance of the Moquis, p. 279. 6 Mrs Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe, p. 279. 6 See for Worgaia and Warramunga reverence of the mother's totem, though they inherit the father's, Spencer and Gillen, Northern Tribes, p. 166. That these tribes, though reckoning descent in the paternal line, inherit property in the maternal is certain, see pp. 523, 524- 'Thomas, ut supra, p. 15. TOTEMISM with female descent, the Dieri, actually in the process of diverging from female to male descent of the totem. " A step further is when a man gives his totem name to his son, who then has those of both father and mother. This has been done even in the Dieri tribe," which appears to mean that it is also done in other tribes.1 A difficult case in marriage law is explained by saying that " possibly some man, as is sometimes the case, gave his Murdu (totem) to his son, who was then of two Murdus, and so could not marry a girl of one of his two totems." 2 We thus see how the change from female to male descent of the totem is " directly led to," as Mr Howitt says,3 by a man's mere fatherly desire to have his son made a member of his own totem kin. On the other hand, we never read that with male descent of the totem a mother gives hers to son or daughter. All these facts make it hard to doubt (though absolute proof is necessarily impossible) that female everywhere preceded male descent of the totem. Proof of transition from female to male descent of the totem appears to be positive in some tribes of the south of South Australia. Among them each person inherits his mother's totem, and may not marry a woman of the same. But he also inherits his father's totem, which " takes precedence," and gives its name to the local group. No person, as apparently among the Dieri when a father has " given his totem " to a son, may marry into either his father's or his mother's totem kin (Mrs Bates). Thus we have a consecutive series of evolutions: (a) All inherit the maternal totem only, and must not marry within it. This is the rule in tribes of south-east Australia with female descent, (b) Some fathers in this society give their totems to sons, who already inherit their maternal totems. Such sons can marry into neither the paternal nor maternal totems. This was a nascent rule among the Dieri. (c) All inherit both the paternal and the maternal totem, and may marry into neither (southern South Australia), (d) All inherit the religious regard for the maternal totem, but may marry within it, while they may not marry within the paternal totem (Worgaia and Warramunga of north central Australia), (e) The paternal totem alone is religiously regarded, and alone is exogamous (tribes of south- east Australia with male descent). (/) The totem is neither hereditary on either side nor exogamous (Spencer's Arunta). (g) The maternal totem is hereditary and sacred, but not exogamous (Strehlow's Arunta). In this scheme we give the degrees by which inheritance of the totem from the mother shades into inheritance of the totem from both parents (Dieri) , thence to inheritance of both the maternal and paternal totem while the paternal alone regulates marriage (Worgaia and Warramunga), thence to exclusive inheritance of the paternal, without any regard paid to the maternal totem (some tribes of South Australia) , and so on. Meanwhile we hear of no tribe with paternal descent of the totem in which mothers are giving their own totems also to their children. We cannot expect to find more powerful presumptions in favour of the opinion that tribes having originally only maternal have advanced by degrees to only paternal descent of the totem. Mr Frazer says, " So far as I am aware, there is no evidence that any Australian tribe has exchanged maternal for paternal descent, and until such evidence is forthcoming we are justified in assuming that those tribes which now trace descent from the father formerly traced it from the mother."4 We have now provided, however, the evidence for various transitional stages from maternal to paternal descent, but have found no traces of the contrary process, nor more than one way of interpreting the facts. It is admitted by Mr Frazer that in several North American tribes the change from female to male descent has to all appearance been made.6 Among the Delawares the initial process was much akin to that of the Dieri, who, in a tribe of female descent, " gives " his own totem to his sons. " The Delawares had a practice of sometimes naming a child into its father's clan," and a son thus became a member of his father's 1 N.T.S.E.A. p. 284. * Ibid. p. 167. ' Ibid. p. 284. ' Totemism, \. 317. ' Ibid. iii. 42, 58, 72, 80. clan. This " may very well have served to initiate a change of descent from the female to the male line."6 Howitt says pre- cisely the same thing about the paternal practice of the Dieri. Thus there is no reason for denying that the change from female to male descent can be made by Australian as readily as by American tribes. We have given evidence for every step in the transition. The opposite opinion arose merely in an attempt to save the primitiveness of the Arunta, some of whom actually still make the maternal totem hereditary. The change to male descent is socially very important. The totem kin of a man, for example, takes up his blood feud. Where the descent is female a " man may probably have some (totemic) kinsmen in the same group, but equally a considerable number of members of other totem kins." But it is clear that the rule of male descent gives far greater security to the members of a local group; for they are surrounded by kinsmen, local totem groups only occurring where male descent of the totem prevails, or is predominant.7 The change from female to male descent of the totem, or the adoption of male descent from the first (if if ever occurred) is thus a great social advantage. The Ways out of Totemism. — While Howitt believed (though later he wavered in his opinion) that female had always preceded male descent of the totem, he also observed that with male descent came in abnormal developments. One of these is that the people of a district with male descent are often known by the name of the region, or of some noted object therein (say wild cherries).8 They may even regard (or white observers suppose that they regard) some object as their " local totem," yet they marry within that so-called totem. But they take to marrying, not out of the hereditary totem kin, which becomes obsolescent, but out of their own region into some other given locality. Thus in the Kurnai tribe there were no inevitable hereditary totems, but thundung were given by the fathers to lads" when about ten years old or at initiation." 9 The animal thundung(tlder brother) was to protect the boy, or girl (the girl's thundung was 'called banung). The names of the creatures, in each case, appear to have been given to their human brothers and sisters; the thundung name descended to a man's sons. " The names are perpetuated " (under male descent) " from- generation to generation in the same locality."10 Thus it appears that when a Kurnai wishes to marry he goes to a locality where he finds girls of banung names into which he may lawfully wed. So far he seems, in fact, to practise totemic exogamy; that he has to travel to a particular locality is merely an accident. Though the thundung and banung names are not inherited at birth by the children, they are given by the father when the child is old enough to need them.11 On the whole, we seem to see, in tribes where male descent is of old standing, that the exogamous function of the totem becomes obsolete, but a shadow of him, as thundung, retains a sort of " religious " aspect and even an unappreciated influence in marriage law. In Fiji and Samoa, in Melanesia w and British New Guinea, many types of contaminated and variegated survivals of totem- ism may be studied. In the Torres Islands13 hero-worship blends with totemic survivals. As in parts of South Africa, where a tribe, not a kin, has a sacred animal, as in Fiji, he seems to be the one survivor of many totems, the totem of some dominant local • Totemism, iii. 42. 7 Except among the Arunta, where, though totems come by change, local groups are usual. See Spencer and Gillen, Central Tribes, p. g. How this occurs we can only guess. See Folk Lore, vol. xx., No. 2, pp. 229-231. Here it is conjectured that adults of the totem congregate for the purpose of convenience in performing Intich''.uma, or magical services for the propagation of the totem as an article of food. For the nature of these rites, common in the central and northern but unknown to the south-eastern tribes, see Central Tribes, pp. 167-212, and Northern Tribes, pp. 283-320. The Arunta totem aggregates are magical local societies. 8 Central Tribes, pp. 8, 9. ' N.T.S.E.A. p. 146. 10 Ibid. p. 146. u Cf. Howitt, ibid. pp. 270-279. 12 Rivers, " Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia," Journ. Anthrop. Inst. vol. xxxix. 13 Haddon, Cambridge Expedition, vol. v. TOTEMISM 89 totem group, before which the other totems have fled, or but dimly appear, or are vehicles of gods, or, in Africa, of ancestral spirits. (These African tribal sacred animals are called Siboko1.) Some tribes explain that the Siboko originated in an animal sobrique, as ape, crocodile, given from without.2 Sibokoism, the presence of a sacred animal in a local tribe, can hardly be called toteraism, though it is probable that the totem of the leading totem kin, among several such totem kins in a tribe, has become dominant, while the others have become obsolete. On the Gold Coast of Africa as long ago as 1819, Bowdich 3 found twelve " families," as he called them, of which most were called by the name of an animal, plant or other object, more or less sacred to them. They might not marry a person of the same kindred name, and there can be little doubt that totemism, with exogamy, had been the rule. But now the rules are broken down, especially in the peoples of the coast. The survivals and other informa- tion may be found in the Journal of the Anthropological Institute (1906) xxxvi. 178, 188. There are fainter traces of totemism in the Awemba between Lake Tanganyika and Lake Bangweolo. 4 A somewhat vague account of Bantu totems in British East Africa, by Mr C. W. Hobley, indicates that among exogamous " clans " a certain animal is forbidden as food to each " clan." 6 The largest collection of facts about African totemism, from fresh and original sources, is to be found in Mr Frazer's book. For totemism in British Columbia the writings of Mr Hill Tout may be consulted.6 The Thlinkit tribes have the institution in what appears to be its earliest known form, with two exogamous phratries and female descent. Among the Salish tribes " per- sonal " totems are much more prominent. Mr Hill Tout, with Professor F. Boas, considers the hereditary exogamous totem to have its origin in the non-exogamous personal totem, which is acquired in a variety of ways. The Salish are not exogamous, and have considerable property and marked distinctions of rank. It does not, therefore, appear probable that their system of badges or crests and personal totems is more primitive than the totemic rules of the less civilized Thlinkits, who follow the form of the south-east Australian tribes.7 Other very curious examples of what we take to be aberrant and decadant totemism in New Guinea are given by Mr Selig- mann (Man, 1908, No. 89), and by Dr Rivers for Fiji (Man, 1908, No. 75). Mr Seligmann (Man, 1908, No. 100) added to the information and elucidated his previous statements. The " clans " in British south-east New Guinea usually bear geo- graphical names, but some are named after one of the totems in the " clan." " Every individual in the clan has the same linked totems," of which a bird, in each case, and a fish seem to be predominant and may not be eaten. " The clans are exogamous . . . and descent is in the female line." It appears, then, that a man, having several totems, all the totems in his " clan," must marry a woman of another " clan " who has all the totems of her " clan." Similar multiplicity of totems, each individual having a number of totems, is described in Western Australia (Mrs Bates). In this case the word " totem " seems to be used rather vaguely and the facts require elucidation and verification. In this part of Australia, as in Fiji8 "pour la naissance . . . 1'apparition du totem-animal avait toujours lieu." In Fiji the mother sees the animal, which does not affect conception, and " is merely an omen for the child already conceived." But in Western Australia, as we have seen, the husband dreams of an animal, which is supposed to follow him home, and to be the next child borne by his wife If it is correctly stated that when the husband has dreamed of no animal, while nevertheless his wife has a baby, the husband spears the man whom he suspects of having dreamed of an animal, the marital jealousy 1 Frazer, " Totemism, South Africa," Man (1901), No. Hi. 2 See Secret of the Totem, pp. 25, 26. 3 Mission to Ashanti. 4 Journ. Anthrop. Inst. (1906), xxxvi. 154. 6 Ibid. (1903), xxxiii. 346-348. " Ibid. (1903-1904). 7 See discussion in Secret of the Totem for details and references. 8 Pere Schmidt, Man (1908), No. 84, quoting Pere de Marzan, Anthrapos, ii. 400-405. takes an unusual form and human life becomes precarious. But probably the husband has some reason for the direction of his suspicions. He never suspects a woman. " The Banks' Islanders," says Mr Frazer, " have retained the primitive system of conceptional totemism." 9 On the other hand Dr Rivers, who is here our authority, writes " totemism is absent " from " the northern New Hebrides, the Banks' and the Terres groups." 10 In a place where totemism is absent it does not prima facie seem likely that we shall discover " the primitive system of conceptional totemism." The Banks' Islanders have no totemism at all. But they have a certain superstition applying to certain cases, and that superstition resembles Arunta and Loritja beliefs, in which Mr Frazer finds the germs of totemism. The superstition, however, has not produced any kind of totemism in the Banks' group of isles, at least, no totemism is found. " There are," writes Dr Rivers, " beliefs which would seem to furnish the most natural starting-point for totemism, beliefs which Dr Frazer has been led by the Australian evidence " (by part of the Australian evidence, we must say) " to regard as the origin of the institution." Thus, in Banks' Islands we have the starting-point of the institution, without the institution itself, and in many Australian tribes we have the institution — without the facts which are " the most natural starting-point." As far as they go these circumstances look as if " the most natural " were not the actual starting-point. The facts are these: in the Isle of Mota, Banks' group, " many individuals " are under a tabu not to eat, in each case, a certain animal or fruit, or to touch certain trees, because, in each case, " the person is believed to be the animal or fruit in question." This tabu does not, as in totemism, apply to every individual; but only to those whose mothers, before the birth of the indivi- duals, " find an animal or fruit in their loin-cloths." This, at least, " is usually " the case. No other cases are given. The women, in each case, are informed that their child " will have the qualities of the animal " (or fruit) " or even, it appeared would be himself or herself the animal " (or fruit). A coco-nut or a crocodile, a flying fox or a brush turkey, could not get inside a loin-cloth; the animal and fruits must be of exiguous dimensions. When the animal (or fruit) disappears " it is believed that it is because the animal has at the time of its dis- appearance entered into the woman. It seemed quite clear that there was no belief in physical impregnation on the part of the animal nor of the entry of a material object in the form of the animal . . , but, so far as I could gather, an animal found in this way was regarded as more or less supernatural, a spirit animal and not one material, from the beginning." " There was no ignorance of the physical r61e of the human father, and the father played the same part in conception as in cases unaccompanied by an animal appearance." The part played by the animal or fruit is limited to producing a tabu against the child eating it, in each case, and some community of nature with the animal or fruit. Nothing here is hereditary. The superstition resembles some of those of the Arunta, Loritja and Euahlayi. Among the Euahlayi the superstition has no influence; normal totemism prevails; among the Arunta nation it is considered to be, and Dr Rivers seems to think that it is, likely to have been the origin of totemism. In Mota, however, it either did not produce totemism, or it did; and, where the germ has survived in certain cases, the institution has disappeared — while the germinal facts have vanished in the great majority of totemic societies. Dr Rivers does not explain how a brush turkey, a sea snake or a flying fox can get into a woman's loin-cloth, yet these animals, also crabs, are among those tabued in this way. Perhaps they have struck the woman's fancy without getting into her loin-cloth. It is scarcely correct to say that " the Banks' Islanders have retained the primitive system of conceptional totemism." They only present, in certain instances, features like those which are supposed to be the germs of a system of conceptional « Man, iv. 128. 10 " Totemism in Polynesia and Melanesia," Journ. Anthrop. Inst. xxxix. 173, sqq. 9o TOTEMISM totemism. In the case of the Arunta we have demonstrated that hereditary and exogamous totemism of the normal type preceded the actual conceptional method of acquiring, by local accident, " personal totems." If the Banks' Islanders were ever totemists they have ceased to be so, and merely retain, in cases, a superstition analogous to that which, among the Arunta, with the aid of the stone churinga, has produced the present unique and abnormal state of affairs totemic. For totemism in India, see Dal ton, Descriptive Ethnology of Bengal; for the north of Asia, Strahlenberg's Description, &c. (1738); and in all instances Mr Frazer's book. Myths of Totem Origins. — The myths of savages about the origin of totemism are of no historical value. Not worshipping ancestral spirits, an Australian will not, like an ancestor- worshipping African, explain his totem as an ancestral spirit. But where, as in the north and centre, he has an elaborate philosophy of spirits, there the primal totems exude spirits which are incarnated in women. In their myths as to the origin of totemism, savages vary as much as the civilized makers of modern hypotheses. Some claim descent from the totem object; others believe that an original race of animals peopled the world; animals human in character, but bestial, vegetable, astral or what not, in form. These became men, while retaining the rapport with their original species; or their spirits are continually reincarnated in women and are born again (Arunta of Messrs Spencer and Gillen); or spirits emanating from the primal forms, or from objects in nature, as trees or rocks, connected with them, enter women and are reincarnated (Arunta of Mr Strehlow and some Australian north-western tribes, studied by Mrs Bates). Other Australians believe that the All-Father, Baiame, gave totems and totemic laws to men.1 There are many other explana- tory myths wherever totemism, or vestiges thereof, is found in Australia, Africa, America and Asia. All the myths of savages, except mere romantic Marchen, and most of the myths of peoples who, like the Greeks, later became civilized, are " aetiological," that is, are fanciful hypotheses made to account for everything, from the universe, the skies, the sun, the moon, the stars, fire, rites and ceremonies, to the habits and markings of animals. It is granted that almost all of these fables are historically valueless, but an exception has been made, by scholars who believe that society was deliberately reformed by an act bisecting a tribe into two exogamous divisions, for savage myths which hit on the same explanation. We might as well accept the savage myths which hit on other explanations, for example the theory that Sibokoism arose from animal sobriquets. Exceptions are also made for Arunta myths in which the primal ancestors are said to feed habitually if not exclusively on their own totems. But as many totems, fruit, flowers, grubs, and so on are only procurable for no longer than the season of the May-fly or the March-brown, these myths are manifestly fabulous. Again the Arunta primal ancestors are said to have cohabited habitually with women of their own totem, though without prejudice against women of other totems whom they encountered in their wanderings. These myths are determined by the belief in oknanikilla, or spots haunted by spirits all of one totem, which, again, determine the totem of every Arunta. The idea being that the fabled primal ancestors male and female in each wandering group of miracle-workers were always all of one totem, it follows that, if not celibate, which these savages never are, they must have cohabited with women of their own totem, and, by the existing Arunta system, there is no reason why they should not have done so. In no other field of research is historical value attributed to savage legends about the inscrutable past that lies behind existing institutions. We are thus confronted by an institution of great importance socially where it regulates marriages and the blood-feud, or where it is a bond of social union between kinsmen in the totem or members of a society which does magic for the behoof 1 Mrs Langloh Parker, The Euahlayi Tribe. of its totem (central and north-western Australia), and is of some " religious " and mythical importance when, as in Samoa, the sacred animal is regarded as the vehicle of a god. Of the origin of these beliefs, which have practical effects in the evolution of society and religion, much, we saw, is conjectured, but as we know no race in the act of becoming totemic — as in all peoples which we can study totemism is an old institution, and in most is manifestly decaying or being transmuted — we can only form the guesses of which examples have been given. Others may be found in the works of Herbert Spencer and Lord Avebury, and criticisms of all of them may be read in A. Lang's Social Origins. Whether or not survivals of totems are to be found in the animal worship of ancient Egypt, in the animal attendants of Greek gods, in Greek post-Homeric legends of descent from gods in various bestial disguises, and in certain ancient Irish legends, it is impossible to be certain, especially as so many gods are now explained as spirits of vegetation, to which folk-lore assigns carnal forms of birds and beasts. ^ Other Things called Totems.— As has been said, the name " totem " is applied by scholars to many things in nature which are not hereditary and exogamous totems. The " local totem " (so called) has been mentioned, also " linked totems." Personal Totems. — This is the phrase for any animal or other object which has been " given " to a person as a protective familiar, whether by a sorcerer 2 or by a father, or by a congress of spaewives at birth; or whether the person selects it for him- self, by the monition of a dream or by caprice. The Euahlayi call the personal totem Yunbeai, the true totem they style Dhe. They may eat their real but not their personal totems, which answer to the hares and black cats of our witches. Three or four other examples of tribes in which " personal totems " are " given " to lads at initiation are recorded by Howitt.3 The custom appears to be less common in Australia than in America and Africa (except in South Australia, where people may have a number of " personal totems "). In one case the " personal totem " came, to a man in a dream, as in North America.4 Here it may be noted that the simplest and appar- ently the easiest theory of the origin of totemism is merely to suppose that a man, or with female descent a woman, made his or her personal totem hereditary for ever in his or her descendants. But nobody has explained how it happened that while all had evanescent personal totems those of a few individuals only become stereotyped and hereditary for ever. Sex-Totems. — The so-called " sex totem " is only reported in Australia. Each sex is supposed by some tribes to have its patron animal, usually a bird, and to injure the creature is to injure the sex. When lovers are backward the women occasion- ally kill the animal patron of the men, which produces horse- play, and " a sort of jolly fight," like sky-larking and flirtation.5 The old English " jolly kind of fight," between girls as partisans of ivy, and men as of the holly " sex-totem," is a near analogue. It need not be added that " sex-totems " are exogamous, in the nature of things. Sub-Totems. — This is the name of what are also styled " multi- plex totems," that is, numerous objects claimed for their own by totem kins in various Australian regions. The Emu totem kin, among the Euahlayi tribe, claims as its own twenty-three animals and the north-west wind.6 The whole universe, including mankind, was apparently .divided between the totem kins. Therefore the list of sub-totems might be extended indefinitely.7 These " sub-totems " are a savage effort at universal classification. Conclusion. — We have now covered the whole field of con- troversy as to the causes and origins of totemic institutions. Australia, with North America, provides the examples of those institutions which seem to be " nearest to the beginning," and in Australia the phenomena have been most carefully and 2 TJie Euahlayi Tribe, p. 21. * Ibid. p. 154. 6 The Euahlayi Tribe, p. I *.. 7 N.T.S.E.A. p. 454. 3 N.T.S.E.A. pp. 144-148. 6 Ibid. pp. 148-151. TOTILA— TOTNES 91 elaborately observed among peoples the least sophisticated. In, North America most that we know of many great tribes, Iroquois, Hurons, Delawares and others, was collected long ago, and when precision was less esteemed, while the tribes have been much contaminated by our civilization. It has been unavoidably necessary to criticize, at almost every stage, the conclusions and hypotheses of the one monumental collection of facts and theories, Mr Frazer's Totemism (1910). Persons who would pursue the subject further may consult the books mentioned in the text, and they will find a copious, perhaps an exhaustive bibliography in the references of Mr Frazer's most erudite volumes, with their minute descriptive account not only of the totemism, but of the environment and general culture of hundreds of human races, in Savagery and in the Lower and Higher Barbarism. (A. L.) TOTILA (d. 552), king of the Ostrogoths, was chosen king after the death of his uncle Ildibad in 541, his real name being, as is seen from the coinage issued by him, Baduila. The work of his life was the restoration of the Gothic kingdom in Italy and he entered upon the task at the very beginning of his reign, collecting together and inspiring the Goths and winning a victory over the troops of the emperor Justinian, near Faenza. Having gained another victory in 542, this time in the valley of Mugello, he left Tuscany for Naples, captured that city and then received the submission of the provinces of Lucania, Apulia and Calabria. Totila's conquest of Italy was marked not only by celerity but also by mercy, and Gibbon says " none were deceived, either friends or enemies, who depended on his faith or his clemency." Towards the end of 545 the Gothic king took up his station at Tivoli and prepared to starve Rome into surrender, making at the same time elaborate preparations for checking the progress of Beli- sarius who was advancing to its relief. The Imperial fleet, moving up the Tiber and led by the great general, only just failed to succour the city, which must then, perforce, open its gates to the Goths. It was plundered, although Totila did not carry out his threat to make it a pasture for cattle, and when the Gothic army withdrew into Apulia it was from a scene of desola- tion. But its walls and other fortifications were soon restored, and Totila again marching against it was defeated by Belisarius, who, however, did not follow up his advantage. Several cities were taken by the Goths, while Belisarius remained inactive and then left Italy, and in 549 Totila advanced a third time against Rome, which he captured through the treachery of some of its defenders. His next exploit was the conquest and plunder of Sicily, after which he subdued Corsica and Sar- dinia and sent a Gothic fleet against the coasts of Greece. By this time the emperor Justinian was taking energetic measures to check the Goths. The conduct of a new campaign was entrusted to the eunuch Narses; Totila marched against him and was defeated and killed at the battle of Tagina in July 552- See E. Gibbon, Decline and Fall, edited by J. B. Bury (1898), vol. iv; T. Hodgkin, Italy and her Invaders (1896), vol. iv. and Kampfner, Totila, Konig der Ostgoten (1889). TOTNES, GEORGE CAREW, or CAREY, EARL OF (1555-1629), English politician and writer, son of Dr George Carew, dean of Windsor, a member of a well-known Devonshire family, and Anne, daughter of Sir Nicholas Harvey, was born on the 29th of May I555,1 and was educated at Broadgates Hall, Oxford, where he took the degree of M.A. in 1588. He distinguished himself on the field on several occasions and filled important military commands in Ireland. In 1584 he was appointed gentleman- pensioner to Queen Elizabeth, whose favour he gained. In 1586 he was knighted -in Ireland. Refusing the embassy to France, Sir George Carew was made master of the ordnance in Ireland in 1588, in 1590 Irish privy councillor; and in 1592 lieutenant- general of the ordnance in England, in which capacity he accompanied Essex in the expedition to Cadiz in 1596 and to 'According to his own statement, Archaeologia, xii. 401. In the introduction, however, to the Calendar of Carew MSS. the date of his birth is given as 1558, and his admission into Broadgates Hall in 1572, aged 15. In the preface to Carew's Letters to Roe it is given as 1557- the Azores in 1597. In 1598 he attended Sir Robert Cecil, the ambassador, to France. He was appointed treasurer at war to Essex in Ireland in March 1599, and on the latter's sudden departure in September of the same year, leaving the island in disorder, Carew was appointed a lord justice, and in 1600 president of Munster, where his vigorous measures enabled the new lord deputy, Lord Mountjoy, to suppress the rebellion. He returned to England in 1603 and was well received by James I., who appointed him vice-chamberlain to the queen the same year, master of the ordnance in 1608, and privy councillor in 1616; and on the accession of Charles I. he became treasurer to Queen Henrietta Maria in 1626. He sat for Hastings in the parliament of 1604, and on the 4th of June 1605 was created Baron Carew of Clopton, being advanced to the earldom of Totnes on the 5th of February 1626. In 1610 he revisited Ireland to report on the state of the country; and in 1618 pleaded in vain for his friend Sir Walter Raleigh. He died on the 27th of March 1629, leaving no issue. He married Joyce, daughter of William Clopton, of Clopton in Warwickshire. Besides his fame as president of Munster, where his administration forms an important chapter in Irish history, Carew had a consider- able reputation as an antiquary. He was the friend of Camden, of Cotton and of Bodley. He made large collections of materials relating to Irish history and pedigrees, which he left to his secretary, Sir Thomas Stafford, reputed on scanty evidence to be his natural son; while some portion has disappeared, 39 volumes after coming into Laud's possession are now at Lambeth, and 4 volumes in the Bodleian Library. A calendar of the former is included in the State Papers series edited by J. S. Brewer and W. Bullen. His correspondence from Munster with Sir Robert Cecil was edited in 1864 by Sir John Maclean, for the Camden Society, and his letters to Sir Thomas Roe (1615-1617) in 1860. Other letters or papers are in the Record Office; among the MSS. at the British Museum and calendared in the Hist. MSS. Com, Series, Marquess of Salisbury's MSS. Stafford published after Carew's death Pacata Hibernia, or the History of the Late Wars in Ireland (1633), the authorship of which he ascribes in his preface to Carew, but which has been attributed to Stafford himself. This was reprinted in 1810 and re- edited in 1896. A Fragment of the History of Ireland, a translation from a French version of an Irish original, and King Richard II..., in Ireland from the French, both by Carew, are printed in Walter Harris's Hibernica (1757). According to Wood, Carew contributed to the history of the reign of Henry V. in Speed's Chronicle. His opinion on the alarm of the Spanish invasion in 1596 has also been printed. See also the Life of Sir P. Carew, ed. by Sir J. Maclean (1857). TOTNES, a market town and municipal borough in the Totnes parliamentary division of Devonshire, England, on the Dart, 29 m. S.S.W. of Exeter, by the Great Western railway. Pop. (1901), 4035. It stands on the west bank of the river, and is joined by a bridge to the suburb of Bridgetown. It was formerly a walled town, and two of the four gates remain. Many old houses are also preserved, and in High Street their overhanging upper stories, supported on pillars, form a covered way for foot-passengers. The castle, .founded by the Breton Juhel, lord of the manor after the Conquest, was already dismantled under Henry VIII.; but its ivy-clad keep and upper walls remain. The grounds form a public garden. Close by are the remains of St Mary's Priory, which comprise a large Perpen- dicular gatehouse, refectory, precinct wall, abbot's gate and still-house. A grammar school, founded 1554, occupied part of the Priory, but was removed in 1874 to new buildings. The Perpendicular church of St Mary contains a number of interest- ing tombs and effigies dating from the i5th century onwards, and much excellent carved work. The guildhall is formed from part of the Priory. Vessels of 200 tons can lie at the wharves near the bridge. The industries include brewing, flour mill- ing, and the export of agricultural produce, chiefly corn and cider. Trout and salmon are plentiful in the river. The town is governed by a mayor, 4 aldermen and 12 councillors. Area 1423 acres. Totnes ( Toteneis, Tolton) was a place of considerable importance in Saxon times; it possessed a mint in the reign of /Ethelred, and was governed by a portreeve. In the Domesday Survey it appears as a mesne borough under Juhel of Totnes, founder of the castle and priory; it had 95 burgesses within and 15 without the borough, and rendered military service according TOTONICAPAM— TOUCAN to the custom of Exeter. In 1215 a charter from John instituted a gild merchant with freedom from toll throughout the land. A mayor is mentioned in the court roll of 1386-1387, and a charter from Henry VII. in 1505 ordered that the mayor should be elected on St Matthew's day, and should be clerk of the market. The present governing charter was granted by Elizabeth in 1596, and instituted a governing body of a mayor, fourteen masters or councillors, and an indefinite number of burgesses, including a select body called " the Twenty-men." A fresh charter of incorporation from James II. in 1689 made no altera- tions of importance. The borough was represented in parlia- ment by one member in 1295, and by two members from 1298 until disfranchised by the act of 1867. A market on Saturday existed at least as early as 1255, and in 1608 is described as well stocked with provisions. The charter of Elizabeth granted a three days' fair at the feast of SS Simon and Jude (Oct. 28), and in 1608 fairs were also held on May day and at the feast of St James (July 25). The market day has been transferred to Friday, but the May and October fairs are continued. The town was formerly noted for serges, and in 1641 the inhabitants represented their distress owing to the decline of the woollen trade. The industry is now extinct. During the Civil War General Goring quartered his troops at Totnes, and Fairfax also made it his temporary station. See Victoria County History; Devonshire; The History of Totnes, its neighbourhood and Berry Pomeroy Castle (Totnes, 1825); William Cotton, A Graphic and Historical Sketch of the Antiquities of Totnes (London, 1858). TOTONICAPAM, or TOTONICAPAN, the capital of the depart- ment of Totonicapam, Guatemala, on the same high plateau as Quezaltenango, the nearest railway station, from which it is 12 m. E.N.E. Pop. (1905) about 28,000. Totonicapam is inhabited mainly by Quiche Indians, employed in the making of cloth, furniture, pottery and wooden musical instruments. There are hot mineral springs in the neighbourhood. In 1838 Totonicapam was declared an independent republic, in which the adjoining departments of Solola and Quezaltenango were included. This state existed for two years, and was then again merged in the republic of Guatemala. Totonicapam suffered greatly in the earthquake of the i8th of April 1902. TOTTENHAM, an urban district in the Tottenham parlia- mentary division of Middlesex, England, forming a north suburb of London, 65 m. north of London Bridge, adjoining Edmonton on the south. Top. (1901), 102,541. Its full name, not now in use, was Tottenham High Cross, from the cross near the centre of the township. The origin and significance of this cross are doubtful. The present structure was erected c. 1600, and ornamented with stucco in 1809. In the time of Isaak Walton there stood by it a shady arbour to which the angler was wont to resort. Formerly Tottenham was noted for its " greens," in the centre of one of which stood the famous old elm trees called the " Seven Sisters "; these were removed in 1840, but the name is pre- served in the Seven Sisters Road. Bruce castle, on the site of the old mansion of the Bruces, but built probably by Sir William Compton in the beginning of the i6th century, was occupied by a boarding-school founded by Mr (afterwards Sir) Rowland Hill in 1827 on the system instituted by him at Hazle- wood, Birmingham. It became public property in 1892. The church of All Hallows, Tottenham, was given by David, king of Scotland (c.ii26), to the canons of the church of Holy Trinity, London. It retains Perpendicular portions, a south porch of brick of the i6th century and numerous ancient monu- ments and brasses. The grammar school was enlarged and endowed in 1686 by Sarah, dowager duchess of Somerset. The urban district formerly included Wood Green to the west, but this became a separate urban district in 1888 (pop. 34,233). In the reign of Edward the Confessor the manor of Tottenham was possessed by Earl Waltheof . It was inherited by his daughter Maud, who was married first to Simon de St Liz and after- wards to David, son of Malcolm III., king of Scotland, who was created by Henry I. earl of Huntingdon, and received possession of all the lands formerly held by Earl Waltheof. The manor thus descended to William the Lion, king of Scotland, and was granted by him in 1184 to his brother David, earl of Angus and Galloway, the grant being confirmed in 1199 by King John of England, who created him earl of Huntingdon. He married Maud, heiress of Hugh, earl of Chester, and his son John inherited both earldoms. The son married Helen, daughter of Llewelyn, prince of Wales, by whom he was poisoned in 1237, dying without issue. She retained possession till 1254, when the manor was divided between his coheirs Robert de Brus, John de Baliol and Henry de Hastings, each division forming a distinct manor bearing the name of its owner. In 1429 they were reunited in the possession of John Gedeney, alderman of London. William Bedwell, the Arabic scholar, was vicar of Tottenham, and published in 1632 a Briefe Description of the Towne of Tottenham, in which he printed for the first time the burlesque poem, the Turna- ment of Tottenham. TOTTENVILLE, a former village of Richmond county, New York, U.S.A., and since 1898 a part of New York City. It is on the southern shore of Staten Island in New York Bay and on Staten Island Sound, about 20 m. S.W. of the south extremity of Manhattan Island, and is the terminus of the Staten Island Rapid Transit railway. Marine engines, terra-cotta and boats are manufactured here, and there are oyster fisheries. The " Billopp House " here (still standing) was the scene of the con- ference, on the nth of September 1776, between Lord Howe, representing Lord North, and Benjamin Franklin, John Adams and Edward Rutledge, representing the Continental Congress, with regard to Lord North's offer of conciliation. This house, originally called the " Manor of Bentley," was built by Captain Christopher Billopp (1638-1726), who sailed from England in an armed vessel, the " Bentley," in 1667, and, by circumnavigating Staten Island in 24 hours, made it, under the ruling of the duke of York, a part of New York. From the duke of York he received 1163 acres of land, including the present site of Tottenville. The village was long known as Bentley, but in 1869 was incorporated (under a faulty charter, revised in 1894) as Tottenville, apparently in honour of Gilbert Totten, a soldier in the War of Independence. TOUCAN, the Brazilian name of a bird,1 long since adopted into nearly all European languages, and apparently first given currency in England (though not then used as an English word) in 1668 2 by W. Charleton (Onomasticon, p. 115); but the bird, with its enormous beak and feather-like tongue, was described by Oviedo in his Sumario de la historia natural de las Indias, first published at Toledo in 1527 (ch. 42)," and, to quote the translation of part of the passage in F. Willughby's Ornith- ology (p. 1 29) , " there is no bird secures her young ones better from the Monkeys, which are very noisom to the young of most Birds. For when she perceives the approach of those Enemies, she so settles her self in her Nest as to put her Bill out at the hole, and gives the Monkeys such a welcome therewith, that they presently pack away, and glad they scape so." Indeed, so remarkable a bird must have attracted the notice of the earliest European invaders of America, the more so since its gaudy plumage was used by the natives in the decoration of their per- sons and weapons. In 1555 P. Belon (Hist. nat. oyseaux, p. 184) gave a characteristic figure of its beak, and in 1558 Thevet (Singularitez de la France antarctique, pp. 88-90) a long descrip- tion, together with a woodcut (in some respects inaccurate, but quite unmistakable) of the whole bird, under the name of " Toucan," which he was the first to publish. In 1560 C. Gesner (Icones avium, p. 130) gave a far better figure (though 1 Commonly believed to be so called from its cry; but Skeat (Proc. Philolog. Society, May 15, 1885) adduces evidence to prove that the Guarani Tuca is from 11, nose, and cdng, bone, i.e. nose of bone. 2 In 1656 the beak of an " Aracari of Brazil," which was a toucan sf some sort, was contained in the Musaeum tradescantianum (p. 2), out the word toucan does not appear there. 3 The writer has only been able to consult the reprint of this rare work contained in the Biblioteca de autores espanoles (xxii. 473-515), published at Madrid in 1852. TOUCH 93 still incorrect) from a drawing received from Ferrerius, and suggested that from the size of its beak the bird should be called Burhynchus or Ramphestes. This figure, with a copy of Thevet's and a detailed description, was repeated in the posthumous edition (1585) of his larger work (pp. 800, 801). By 1579 Ambroise Pare ((Euvres, ed. Malgaigne, iii. 783) had dissected a toucan that belonged to Charles IX. of France, and about the same time Lery (Voyage fait en la terre du Brisil, ch. xi.), whose chief object seems to have been to confute Thevet, con- firmed that writer's account of this bird in most respects. In 1599 Aldrovandus (Ornithologia, i. 801-803), always ready to profit by Gesner's information, and generally without acknow- ledgment, again described and repeated the former figures of the bird; but he corrupted his predecessor's Ramphestes into Ramphastos, and in this incorrect form the name, which should certainly be Rhamphestes or Rhamphastas, was subsequently adopted by Linnaeus and has since been recognized by system- atists. Into the rest of the early history of the toucan's discovery it is needless to go.1 Additional particulars were supplied by many succeeding writers, until in 1834 J. Gould completed his Monograph of the family2 (with an anatomical appendix by R. Owen), to which, in 1835, he added some supplementary plates; and in 1854 he finished a second and much improved edition. The most complete compendium on toucans is J. Cassin's " Study of the Ramphastidae," in the Proceedings of the Philadelphia Academy for 1867 (pp. 100-124). By recent systematists 5 genera and from 50 to 60 species of the family are recognized; but the characters of the former have never been satisfactorily denned, much less those of numerous subdivisions which it has pleased some writers to invent. There can be little doubt that the bird first figured and described by the earliest authors above named is the R. toco of nearly all ornithologists, and as such is properly regarded as the type of the genus and therefore of the family. It is one of the largest, measuring 2 ft. in length, and has a wide range throughout Guiana and a great part of Brazil. The huge beak, looking like the great claw of a lobster, more than 8 in. long and 3 high at the base, is of a deep orange colour, with a large black oval spot near the tip. The eye, with its double iris of green and yellow, has a broad blue orbit, and is surrounded by a bare space of deep orange skin. The plumage generally is black, but the throat is white, tinged with yellow and commonly edged beneath with red; the upper tail-coverts are white, and the lower scarlet. In other species of the genus, 14 to 17 in number, the bill is mostly particoloured — green, yellow, red, chestnut, blue and black variously combining so as often to form a ready diagnosis; but some of these tints are very fleeting and often leave little or no trace after death. Alternations of the brighter colours are also displayed in the feathers of the throat, breast and tail-coverts, so as to be in like manner characteristic of the species, and in several the bare space round the eye is yellow, green, blue or lilac. The sexes are alike in coloration, the males being largest. The tail is nearly square or moderately rounded. In the genus Pteroglossus, the " Aracaris " (pronounced Arassari), the sexes more or less differ in appearance, and the tail is graduated. The species are smaller in size, and nearly all are banded on the belly, which is generally yellow, with black and scarlet, while except in two the throat of the males at least is black. One of the most remarkable and beautiful is P. beauharnaisi, by some authors placed in a distinct genus and called Beauharnaisius ulocomus. In this the feathers of the top of the head are very singular, looking like glossy curled shavings of black horn or whalebone, the effect being due to the dilatation of the shaft and it? coalescence with the consolidated barbs. Some of the feathers of the straw-coloured throat and cheeks partake of the same structure, but in a less degree, while the subterminal part of the lamina is of a lustrous pearly- white.3 The beak is richly coloured, 1 One point of some interest may, however, be noticed. In 1705 Plot (N.H. Oxfordshire, p. 182) recorded a toucan found within two miles of Oxford in 1644, the body of which was given to the repository in the medical school of that university, where, he said, " it is still to be seen." Already in 1700 Leigh in his Lancashire (i. 195, Birds, tab. i, fig. 2) had figured another which had been found dead on the coast of that county about two years before. The bird is easily kept in captivity, and no doubt from early times many were brought alive to Europe. Besides the one dissected by Par£, as above mentioned, Joh. Faber, in his additions to Hernandez's work on the Natural History of Mexico (1651), figures (p. 697) one seen and described by Puteus (Dal Pozzo) at Fontainebleau. 2 Of this the brothers Sturm in 1841 published at Nuremberg a German version. * This curious peculiarity naturally attracted the notice of the first discoverer of the species, Poeppig, who briefly described it in a letter published in Froriep's Notizen (xxxii. 146) for December 1831. being green and crimson above and lemon below. The upper plumage generally is dark green, but the mantle and rump are crimson, as are a broad abdominal belt, the flanks and many crescentic markings on the otherwise yellow lower parts.4 The group or genus Selenodera, proposed by J. Gould in 1837 (Icones avium, pt. i), contains some 6 or 7 species, having the beak, which is mostly transversely striped, and tail shorter than in Pteroglossus. Here the sexes also differ in coloration, the males having the head and breast black, and the females the same parts chestnut; but all have a yellow nuchal crescent (whence the name of the group). The so-called hill-toucans have been separated as another genus, Andi- gena, and consist of some 5 or 6 species chiefly frequenting the slopes of the Andes and reaching an elevation of 10,000 ft., though one, often placed among them, but perhaps belonging rather to Ptero- glossus, the A. bailloni,_ remarkable for its yellow-orange head, neck and lower parts, inhabits the lowlands of southern Brazil. Another very singular form is A. laminirostris, which has affixed on either side of the maxilla, near the base, a quadrangular ivory-like plate, forming a feature unique in this or almost in any family of birds. The group Aulacorhamphus, or " groove-bills," with a considerable but rather uncertain number of species, contains the rest of the toucans. The monstrous serrated bill that so many toucans possess was by G. L. L. Buffon accounted a grave defect of nature, and it must be confessed that no one has given what seems to be a satisfactory explanation of its precise use, though on evolutionary principles none will now doubt its fitness to the bird's requirements. Solid as it looks, its weight is inconsiderable, and the perfect hinge by which the maxilla is articulated adds to its efficiency as an instrument of prehension. W. Swainson (Classif. Birds, ii. 138) imagined it merely " to contain an infinity of nerves, disposed like net-work, all of which lead immediately to the nostrils," and add to the olfactory faculty. This notion seems to be borrowed from J. W. H. Trail (Trans. Linn. Society, xi. 289), who admittedly had it from Waterton, and stated that it was " an admirable contrivance of nature to increase the delicacy of the organ of smell;" but R. Owen's descrip- tion showed this view to be groundless, and he attributed the extraordinary development of the toucan's beak to the need of com- pensating, by the additional power of mastication thus given, for the absence of any of the grinding structures that are so characteristic of the intestinal tract of vegetable-eating birds — its digestive organs possessing a general simplicity of formation. The nostrils are placed so as to be in most forms invisible until sought, being obscured by the frontal feathers or the backward prolongation of the horny sheath of the beak. The wings are somewhat feeble, and the legs have the toes placed in pairs, two before and two behind. The tail is capable of free vertical motion, and controlled by strong muscles, so that, at least in the true toucans, when the bird is preparing to sleep it is reverted and lies almost flat on the back, on which also the huge bill reposes, pointing in the opposite direction. The toucans are limited to the new world, and by far the greater number inhabit the north of South America, especially Guiana and the valley of the Amazons. Some three species occur in Mexico, and several in Central America. One, R. vitellinus, which has its head- quarters on the mainland, is said to be common in Trinidad, but none are found in the Antilles proper. They compose the family Rham- phastidae of Coraciiform birds, and are associated with the wood- peckers (Picidae) and puff-birds and jacamars (Galbulidae) ; their nearest allies perhaps exist among the Capitonidae, but none of these is believed to have the long feather-like tongue which is so charac- teristic of the toucans, and is, so far as known, possessed besides only by the Momotidae (see MOTMOT). But of these last there is no reason to deem the toucans close relatives, and according to W. Swainson, who had opportunities of observing both, the alleged resemblance in their habits has no existence. Toucans in confine- ment feed mainly on fruit, but little seems amiss to them, and they swallow grubs, reptiles and small birds with avidity. They nest in hollow trees, and lay white eggs. (A. N.) TOUCH (derived through Fr. toucher from a common Teu- tonic and Indo-Germanic root, cf. " tug," " tuck," O. H. Ger. zucchen, to twitch or draw), in physiology, a sense of pressure, referred usually to the surface of the body. It is often understood as a sensation of contact as distinguished from pressure, but it is evident that, however gentle be the contact, a certain amount of pressure always exists between the sensitive surface and the body touched. Mere contact in such circumstances is gentle pressure; a greater amount of force causes a feeling of resistance or of pressure referred to the skin; a still greater amount causes a feeling of muscular resistance, as when a weight is supported on the palm of the hand; whilst, finally, the pressure may be so great as to cause a feeling of pain. The force may not be exerted 4 Readers of F. Bates's Naturalist on the River Amazons will recollect the account (ii. 344) and illustration there given of his encounter with a flock of this species of toucan. His remarks on the other species with which he met are also excellent. 94 TOUCH vertically on the sensory surface, but in the opposite direction as when a hair on a sensory surface is pulled or twisted. Touch is therefore the sense by which mechanical force is appreciated and it presents a strong resemblance to hearing, in which the sensation is excited by intermittent pressures on the auditory organ. In addition to feelings of contact or pressure referred to the sensory surface, contact may give rise to a sensation oi temperature, according as the thing touched feels hot or cold These sensations of contact, pressure or temperature are usually referred to the skin or integument covering the body, but they are experienced to a greater or less extent when any serous or mucous surface is touched. The skin being the chief sensory surface of touch, it is there -that the sense is most highly developed both as to delicacy in detecting minute pressures and as to the character of the surface touched. Tactile impressions, properly so called, are absent from internal mucous surfaces, as has been proved in men having gastric, intestinal and urinary fistulae. In these cases, touching the mucous surface caused pain, and not a true sensation of touch. In the article NERVE (Spinal) the cutaneous distribution of the organs of touch is dealt with. The Amphibia and Reptilia do not show any special organs of touch. The lips of tadpoles have tactile papillae. Some snakes have a pair of tentacles on the snout, but the tongue is probably the chief organ of touch in most serpents and lizards. All reptiles possessing climbing powers have the sense of touch highly developed in the feet. Birds have epithelial papillae on the soles of the toes that are no doubt tactile. These are of great length in the capercailzie (Tetrax •urogallus) , " enabling it to grasp with more security the frosted branches of the Nor- wegian pine trees " (Owen). Around the root of the bill in many birds there are special tactile organs, assist- ing the bird to use it as a kind of sensitive probe for the de- tection in soft ground of the worms, grubs and slugs that constitute its food. Special bodies of this kind have been detected in the beak and tongue of the duck and goose, called the tactile corpuscles of F. S. Merkel, or the corpuscles of Grandry (fig. i). Similar bodies have been found in the epidermis of man and mammals, in the outer root-sheath of tactile hairs or feelers. They consist of small bodies composed of a capsule enclosing two or more flattened nucleated cells, piled in a row. Each corpuscle is separated from the others by a transparent protoplasmic disk. Nerve fibres terminate either in the cells (Merkel) or in the protoplasmic intercellular matter (Ranyier, Hesse, Izquierdo). Another form of end-organ has been described by Herbst as existing in the mucous membrane of the duck's tongue. These corpuscles of Herbst are like small Pacinian corpuscles ^5^==?^ with thin and very close lamellae. Develop- //^S^^O\ ments of integument devoid of feathers, / y^^y^*\\ such as the " wattles " of the cock, the I i J/i-^&ru " caruncles " of the vulture and turkey, \ <£TN»apillae of the tongue, glans penis and clitoris, mucous membrane the rectum of man, and they have also been found on the under surface of the " toes of the guinea-pig, ear and body of he mouse, and in the wing of the bat " (Landois and Stirling). n the genital organs aggregations of end-bulbs occur, known as the " genital corpuscles of Krause " (fig. 3). In the synovial membrane of the joints of the fingers there are larger end-bulbs, :ach connected with three four nerve-filaments. (2) The Touch Corpuscles of Wagner and Meissner. — These are oval bodies, about -j-J^ of an inch long by -gfa of an inch in jreadth. Each consists of a series of layers of connective tissue arranged transversely, and containing in the centre granular matter with nuclei (figs. 2, 3 and 6). One, two or three nerve fibres pass to the lower end of the corpuscle, wind ransversely around it, lose the white substance of Schwann, penetrate into the corpuscle, where the axis cylinders, dividing, :nd in some way unknown. The corpuscles do not contain any soft core, but are apparently built up of irregular septae f connective tissue, in the meshes of which the nerve fibrils end in expansions similar to Merkel's cells. Thin describes imple and compound corpuscles according to the number of nerve fibres entering them. These bodies are found abundantly TOUCH 95 in the palm of the hand and sole of the foot, where there may be as many as 21 to every square millimetre (i mm. = •5*5 inch). They are not so numerous on the back of the hand or foot, mamma, lips and tip of the tongue, and they are rare in the genital organs. 3. The Corpuscles of Vater or P acini. — These, first described by Vater so long ago as 1741, are small oval bodies, quite visible to the naked eye, from iV to iV of an inch long and i (From Landois and Stirling, after Biesiadecki.) FIG. 6. — Vertical Section of the Skin of the Palm of the Hand. a. Blood-vessel. b, Papilla of the cutis vera. c. Capillary. d, Nerve-fibre passing to a touch- corpuscle. «, Wagner's touch-corpuscle. /, Nerve-fibre, divided transversely, g, Cells of the Malpighian layer of the skin. FIG. 7. — Vater'sor Pacini's Corpuscle. a, Stalk. b, Nerve-fibre entering it. c, d, Connective-tissue en- velope. e, Axis cylinder, with its end divided at /. •fa to -jV°f an inch in breadth, attached to the nerves of the hands and feet. They can be readily demonstrated in the mesentery of the cat (fig. 7). Each corpuscle consists of 40 to 50 lamellae or coats, like the folds of an onion, thinner and closer together on approaching the centre. Each lamella is formed of an elastic material mixed with delicate connective- tissue fibres, .and the inner surface of each is lined by a single continuous layer of endothelial cells. A double-contoured nerve fibre passes to each. The white substance of Schwann becomes continuous with the lamellae, whilst the axis cylinder passes into the body, and ends in a small knob or in a plexus. Some- times a blood-vessel also penetrates the Pacinian body, entering along with the nerve. Such bodies are found in the sub- cutaneous tissue on the nerves of the fingers and toes, near joints, attached to the nerves of the abdominal plexuses of the sympathetic, on the coccygeal gland, on the dorsum of the penis and clitoris, in the meso-colon, in the course of the intercostal and periosteal nerves, and in the capsules of lymphatic glands. Physiology of Touch in Man. — Such are the special end-organs of touch. It has also been ascertained that many sensory nerves end in a plexus or network, the ultimate fibrils being connected with the cells of the particular tissue in which they are found. Thus they exist in the cornea of the eye, and at the junctions of tendons with muscles. In the latter situation '' flattened end-flakes or plates " and " elongated oval end- bulbs " have also been found. A consideration of these various types of structure show that they facilitate intermittent pressure being made on the nerve endings. They are all, as it were, elastic cushions into which the nerve endings penetrate, so that the slight variation of pressure will be transmitted to the nerve. Probably also they serve to break the force of a sudden shock on the nerve endings. Sensitiveness and Sense of Locality. — The degree of sensitiveness of the skin is determined by finding the smallest distance at which :he two points of a pair of compasses can be felt. This method first followed by Weber, is employed by physicians in the diagnosis Tip of tongue Third phalanx of finger, volar surface FIG. 8. — Aesthesiometer of Sieveking. of nervous affections involving the sensitiveness of the skin. The following table shows the sensitiveness in millimetres for an adult. Mm. I-I 2-2-3 4-5 4-4-5 5-5-5 6-8 6-8 5-6-8 6-5-7 5-5-6 8-9 Red part ol the lip Second phalanx of finger, volar surface First phalanx of finger, volar surface Third phalanx of finger, dorsal surface Tip of nose Head of metacarpal bone, volar Ball of thumb Ball of little finger Centre of palm Dorsum and side of tongue; white of the lips; metacarpal part of the thumb 9 Third phalanx of the great toe, plantar surface. . . . 11-3 Second phalanx of the fingers, dorsal surface . . . . 11-3 Back n-3 Eyelid 11-3 Centre of hard palate . 13-5 Lower third of the forearm, volar surface 15 In front of the zygoma 15-8 Plantar surface of the great toe 15-8 Inner surface of the lip . 20-3 Behind the zygoma .... 22-6 Forehead 22-6 Occiput 27-1 Back of the hand 31-6 Under the chin 33'8 Vertex 33'8 Knee 36-1 Sacrum (gluteal region) 44-6 Forearm and leg 45" I Neck 54-1 Back of the fifth dorsal vertebra; lower dorsal and lumbar region 54" r Middle of the neck 67-7 Upper arm ; thigh ; centre of the back 67-7 These investigations show not only that the skin is sensitive, but that one is able with great precision to distinguish the part touched. This latter power is usually called the sense of locality, and it is influenced by various conditions. The greater the number of sensory nerves in a given area of skin the greater is the degree of accuracy in distinguishing different points. Contrast in this way the tip of the finger and the back of the hand. Sensitiveness increases from the joints towards the extremities, and sensitiveness is great in parts of the body that are actively moved. The sensibility of the limbs is finer in the transverse axis than in the long axis of the limb, to the extent of J on the flexor surface of the upper limb and J on the extensor surface. It is doubtful if exercise improves sensitiveness, as Francis Galton found that the performances of blind boys were not superior to those of other boys, and he says that " the guidance of the blind depends mainly on the multitude of collateral indications, to which they give much heed, and not their superiority to any one of them. When the skin is moistened with indifferent fluids sensibility is increased. Suslowa made the curious discovery that, if the area between two points distinctly felt be tickled or be stimulated by a weak electric current, the impressions are fused. Stretching the skin, and baths in water containing carbonic acid or common salt, increase the power of localizing tactile impressions. In experimenting with the com- passes, it will be found that a smaller distance can be distinguished if one proceeds from greater to smaller distances than in the reverse direction. A smaller distance can also be detected when the points of the compasses are placed one after the other on the skin than when they are placed simultaneously. If the points of the com- passes are unequally heated, the sensation of two contacts becomes confused. An anaemic condition, or a state of venous congestion, or the application of cold, or violent stretching of the skin, or the use of. such substances as atropine, daturin, morphia, strychnine, alcohol, bromide of potassium, cannabin and hydrate of chloral blunt sensibility. The only active substance said to increase it is caffein. 96 TOUCH Absolute sensitiveness, as indicated by a sense of pressure, has been determined by various methods. Two different weights are placed on the part, and the smallest difference in weight that can be perceived is noted. Weber placed small weights directly on the skin; Aubert and Kammler loaded small plates; Dohrn made use of a balance, having a blunt point at one end of the beam, resting on the skin, whilst weights were placed on the other end of the beam to equalize the pressure; H. Eulenberg invented an instrument like a spiral spring paper-clip or balance (the baraesthesiometer), having an index showing the pressure in grammes; F. Goltz employed an India-rubber tube filled with water, and this, to ensure a constant surface of contact, bent at one spot over a piece of cork, is touched at that spot by the cutaneous part to be examined, and, by rhyth- mically exerted pressure, waves analogous to those of the arterial pulse are produced in the tube ; and L. Landois invented a mercurial balance, enabling him to make rapid variations in the weight without giving rise to any shock. These methods have given the following general results, (i) The greatest acuteness is on the forehead, temples and back of the hand and forearm, which detect a pressure of 0-002 gramme; fingers detect 0-005 to 0-015 gramme; the chin, abdomen and nose 0-04 to 0-05 gramme. (2) Goltz's method gives the same general results as Weber's experiment with the compasses, with the exception that the tip of the tongue has its sensation of pressure much lower in the scale than its sensation of touch. (3) Eulenberg found the following gradations in the fineness of the pressure sense : the forehead, lips, back of the cheeks, and temples appreciate differences of fa to ^ (200: 205 to 300: 310 grammes). The back of the last phalanx of the fingers, the forearm, hand, first and second phalanges, the palmar surface of the hand, forearm and upper arm distinguish differences of A to fa (200: 220 to 200: 210 grammes). The front of the leg and thigh is similar to the fore- arm. Then follow the back of the foot and toes, the sole of the foot, and the back of the leg and thigh. Dohrn placed a weight of I gramme on the skin, and then determined the least additional weight that could be detected, with this result: third phalanx of finger 0-499 gramme; back of the foot, 0-5 gramme; second phalanx, 0-771 gramme; first phalanx, 0-82 gramme; leg, I gramme; back of hand, 1-156 grammes; palm, 1-108 grammes; patella, 1-5 grammes; fore- arm, 1-99 grammes; umbilicus, 3-5 grammes; andback,3-8 grammes. (4) In passing from light to heavier weights, the acuteness increases at once, a maximum is reached, and then with heavy weights the power of distinguishing the differences diminishes. (5) A sensation of pressure after the weights have been removed may be noticed (after-pressure sensation), especially if the weight be considerable. (6) Valentine noticed that, if the finger were held against a blunt- toothed wheel, and the wheel were rotated with a certain rapidity, he felt a smooth margin. This was experienced when the intervals of time between the contacts of successive teeth were less than from lio to BJU of a second. The same experiment can be readily made by holding the finger over the holes in one of the outermost circles of a large syren rotating quickly: the sensations of individual holes become fused, so as to give rise to a feeling of touching a slit. (7) Vibrations of strings are detected even when _the number is about 1500 per second; above this the sensation of vibration ceases. By attaching bristles to the prongs of tuning-forks and bringing these into contact with the lip or tongue, sensations of a very acute character are experienced, which are most intense when the forks vibrate from 600 to 1500 per second. Information from Tactile Impressions. — These enable us to come to the following conclusions, (i) We note the existence_of some- thing touching the sensory surface. (2) From the intensity of the sensation we determine the weight, tension or intensity of the pressure. This sensation is in the first instance referred to the skin, but after the pressure has reached a certain amount muscular sensations are also experienced — the so-called muscular sense. (3) The locality of the part touched is at once determined, and from this the probable position of the touching body. Like the visual field, to which all retinal impressions are referred, point for point, there is a tactile field, to which all points on the skin surface may be referred. (4) By touching a body at various points, from the difference of pressure and from a comparison of the positions of various points in the tactile field we judge of the configuration of the body. A number of " tactile pictures are obtained by passing the skin over the touched body, and the shape of the body is further determined by a knowledge of the muscular movements necessary to bring the cutaneous surface into contact with_ different portions of it. If there is abnormal displacement of position, a false con- ception may arise as to the shape of the body. Thus, if a small marble or a pea be placed between the index and middle finger so as to touch (with the palm downwards) the outer side of the index finger and the inner side of the middle finger, a sensation of touching one round body is experienced ; but if the fingers be crossed, so that the marble touches the inner side of the index finger and the outer side of the middle finger, there will be a feeling of two round bodies, because in these circumstances there is added to the feelings of contact a feeling of distortion (or of muscular action) such as would take place if the fingers, for purposes of touch, were placed -in that abnormal position. Again, as snowing that our knowledge of the tactile field is precise, there is the well-known fact that when a piece of skin is transplanted from the forehead to the nose, in the operation for removing a deformity of the nose arising from lupus or other ulcerative disease, the patient feels the new nasal part as if it were his forehead, and he may have the curious sensation of a nasal instead of a frontal headache. (5) From the number of points touched we judge as to the smoothness or roughness of a body. A body having a uniformly level surface, like a billiard ball, is smooth ; a body having points irregular in size and number in a given area is rough ; and if the points are very close together it gives rise to a sensation, like that of the pile of velvet almost intolerable to some individuals. Again, if the pressure is so uniform as not to be felt, as when the body is immersed in water (paradoxical as this may seem, it is the case that the sensation of contact is felt only at the limit of the fluid), we experience the sensation of being in contact with a fluid. (6) Lastly, it would appear that touch is always the result of variation of pressure. No portion of the body when touching anything can be regarded as absolutely motionless, and the slight oscillations of the sensory surface, and in many cases of the body touched, produce those variations of pressure on which touch depends. To explain the phenomenon of the tactile field, and more specially the_ remarkable variations of tactile sensibility above described, various theories have been advanced, but none are satisfactory. (See article " Cutaneous Sensations " by C. S. Sherrington in Schafer's Physiology, ii. 920). Research shows that the sensation of touch may be referred to parts of the skin which do not contain the special end organs associated with this sense, and that filaments in the Malpighian layer (the layer immediately above the papillae ot the true skin) may form the anatomical basis of the sense. The skin may be regarded, also, as an extensive surface containing nervous arrangements by which we are brought into relation with the outer world. _ Accordingly, touch is not the only sensation referred to the skin, but we also refer sensations of temperature (heat and cold), and often those peculiar sensations which we call pain. Sensations of Temperature. — These depend on thermic irritation of the terminal organs, as proved by the following experiment of E. H. Weber: " If the elbow be dipped into a verv cold fluid, the cold is only felt at the immersed part of the body (where the fibres terminate) ; pain, however, is felt in the terminal organs of the ulnar nerve, namely, in the finger points; this pain, at the same time, deadens the local sensation of cold. " If the sensation of cold were due to the irritation of a specific-nerve fibre, the sensation of cold would be referred to the tips of the fingers. When any part of the skin is above its normal mean temperature, warmth is felt; in the opposite case, cold. The normal mean temperature of a given area varies according to the distribution of hot blood in it and to the activity of nutritive changes occurring in it. When the skin is brought into contact with a good conductor of heat there is a sensation of cold. A sensation of heat is experienced when heat is carried to the skin in any way. The following are the chief facts that have been ascertained regarding the temperature sense: (i) E. H. Weber found that, with a skin temperature of from i5-5°C.to350C., the tips of the fingers can distinguish a difference of 0-25° C. to 0-2° C. Temperatures just below that of the blood (33°-27° C.) are distinguished by the most sensitive parts, even to 0-05° C. (2) The thermal sense varies in different regions as follows: tip of tongue, eyelids, cheeks, lips, neck, belly. The " perceptible minimum " was found to be, in degrees C.: breast 0-4°; back, 0-9°; back of hand, 0-3°; palm, 0-4° ; arm, 0-2° ; back of foot, 0-4° ; thigh, 0-5° ; leg, 0-6° to 0-2°; cheek, 0-4°; temple, 0-3°. (3) If two different temperatures are applied side by side and simultaneously, the impressions of ten fuse, especially if the areas are close together. (4) Practice is said to improve the thermal sense. (5) Sensations of heat and cold may curiously alternate; thus when the skin is dipped first into water at 10° C. we feel cold, and if it be then dipped into water at 16° C. we have at first a feeling of warmth, but soon again of cold. (6) The same temperature applied to a large area is not appreciated in the same way as when applied to a small one; thus the whole hand when placed in water at 29-5° C. feels warmer than when a finger is dipped into water at 32 C. " There is every reason to hold that there are different nerve fibres and different central organs for the tactile and thermal sensations, but nothing definite is known. The one sensation undoubtedly affects the other. Thus the minimum distance at which two com- pass points are felt is diminished when one point is wanner than the other. Again, a colder weight is felt as heavier, " so that the apparent difference of pressure becomes greater when the heavier weight is at the same time colder, and less when the lighter weight is colder, and difference of pressure is felt with equal weights of unequal temperature " (E. H. Weber). Great sensibility to differ- ences of temperature is noticed after removal, alteration by vesicants, or destruction of the epidermis, and in the skin affection called herpes zoster. The same occurs in some cases of locomotor ataxy. Removal of the epidermis, as a rule, increases tactile sensibility and the sense of locality. Increased tactile sensibility is termed hyperpselaphesia, and is a rare phenomenon in nervous diseases. Paralysis of the tactile sense is called hypopselaphesia, whilst its entire loss is apselaphesia. Brown-Sequard mentions a case in TOUCH 97 which contact of two points gave rise to a sense of a third point of contact. Certain conditions of the nerve centres affect the senses both of touch and temperature. Under the influence of morphia the person may feel abnormally enlarged or diminished in size. As a rule the senses are affected simultaneously, but cases occur where one may be affected more than the other. Sensations of heat and cold are chiefly referred to the skin, and only partially to some mucous membranes, such as those of the alimentary canal. Direct irritation of a nerve does not give rise to these sensations. The exposed pulp of a diseased tooth, when irritated by hot or cold fluids, gives rise to pain, not to sensations of temperature. It has now been ascertained that there are minute areas on the skin in which sensations of heat and cold may be more acutely felt than in adjoining areas; and, further, that there are points stimulated by addition of heat, hot spots, while others are stimulated by withdrawal of heat, cold spots. A simple method of demonstrating this phenomenon is to use a solid cylinder of copper, 8 in. in length by £ in. in thick- ness, and sharpened at one end to a fine pencil-like point. Dip the pointed end into very hot water, close the eyes, and touch parts of the skin. When a hot spot is touched, there is an acute sensation of burning. Such a spot is often near a hair. Again, in another set of experiments, dip the copper pencil into ice-cold water and search for cold spots. When one of these is touched, a sensation of cold, as if concentrated on a point, is experienced. Thus it may be demonstrated that in a given area of skin there may be hot spots, cold spots and touch spots. Cold spots are more abundant than hot spots. The spots are arranged in curved lines, but the curve uniting a number of cold spots does not coincide with the curve forming a chain of hot spots. By Weber's method it will be found that we can discriminate cold spots at a shorter distance from each other than hot spots. Thus on the forehead cold spots have a minimum distance of 8 mm., and hot spots 4 mm.; on the skin of the breast, cold spots 2 mm., and hot spots 5 mm.; on the back, cold spots 1-5 mm., and hot spots 4 to 6 mm.; on the back of the hand, cold spots 3 mm., and hot spots 4 mm. ; on the palm, cold spots 8 mm., and hot spots 2 mm. ; and on the thigh and leg, cold spots 3 mm., and hot spots 3-5 mm. Electrical and mechanical stimulation of the hot or cold spots call forth the corresponding sensation. No terminal organ for dis- crimination of temperature has yet been found. It will be observed that the sensation of heat or cold is excited by change of temperature, and that it is more acute and definite the more sudden the change. Thus discrimination of temperature is similar to discrimination of touch, which depends on more or less sudden change of pressure. The term cold means, physiologically, the sensation we experience when heat is abstracted, and the term heat, the sensation felt when heat is added to the part. Thus we are led to consider that the skin contains at least two kinds of specific terminal organs for sensations of touch and temperature, and two sets of nerve fibres which carry the nervous impulses to the brain. In all probability, also, these fibres have different central endings, and in their course to the brain run in different tracts in the spinal cord. This will explain cases of disease of the central nervous system in which, over certain areas of skin, sensations of touch have been lost while sensations of tem- perature and pain remain, or vice versa. Tactile and thermal impressions may influence each other. Thus a leg sent to "sleep" by pressure on the sciatic nerve will be found to be less sensitive to heat, but distinctly sensitive to cold. In some cases of disease it has been noticed that the skin is sensitive to a temperature above that of the limb, but insensitive to cold. It is highly probable that just as we found in the case of touch (pressure), the terminal organs connected with the sense of temperature are the fine nerve filaments that have been detected in the deeper strata of the Malpighian region of the epidermis, immediately above the true skin, and it is also probable that certain epidermic (epithelial) cells in that region play their part in the mechanism. Sensations of a painful character may also, in certain circumstances, be referred to the viscera, and to mucous and serous surfaces. Pain is not a sensation excited by irritating the end organs either of touch or of temperature, nor even by irritating directly the filaments of a sensory nerve. Even if sensory nerves are cut or bruised, as in surgical operations, there may be no sensations of pain; and it has been found that muscles, vessels and even the viscera, such as the heart, stomach, liver or kidneys, may be freely handled without giving rise to any feeling of pain, or indeed to any kind of sensation. These parts, in ordinary circumstances appear to be insensitive, and yet they contain afferent nerves. If the sensibility of these nerves is heightened, or possibly if the sensitiveness of the central terminations of the nerves is raised, then we may have sensations to which we give the name of pain. In like manner the skin is endowed with afferent nerves, distinct from those ministering to touch and to temperature, along which nervous impulses are constantly flowing. When these nervous impulses reach the central nervous system in ordinary circumstances they do not give rise to changes that reach the level of consciousness, but they form, as it were, the warp and woof of our mental life, and they also affect metabolisms, that is to say, nutritive changes in many parts of the body. They may also, as is well known, affect unconsciously such mechanisms as those of the action of the heart, the calibre of the blood-vessels and the movements of respiration. XXVII. 4 If, however, this plane of activity is raised, as by intermittent pressure, or by inflammatory action, or by sudden changes of temperature, as in burning, scalding, &c., such nervous impulses give rise to pain. Sometimes pain is distinctly located, and in other cases it may be irradiated in the nerve centres, and referred to areas of skin or to regions of the body which are not really the seat of the irritation. Thus irritation of the liver may cause pain in the shoulder; disease of the hip-joint often gives rise to pain in the knee; and renal colic, due to_ the passage of a calculus down the ureter, to severe pain even in the abdominal walls. These are often termed reflex pains and their interpretation is of great importance to physicians in the diagnosis of disease. Their frequent occurrence has also directed attention to the distribution in the skin and termination in the brain of the sensory nerves. It is also notice- able that a sensation of pain gives us no information as to its cause; we simply have an agonizing sensation in a part to which, hitherto, we probably referred no sensations. The acuteness or intensity of pain depends partly on the intensity of the irritation, and partly on the degree of excitability of the sensory nerves at the time. Pain. — In addition to sensations of touch and of temperature referred to the skin, there is still a third kind of sensation, unlike either, namely, pain. This sensation cannot be supposed to be excited by irritations of the end organs of touch, or of specific thermal end organs (if there be such), but rather to irritation of ordinary sensory nerves, and there is every reason to believe that painful impressions make their way to the brain along special tracks in the spinal cord. If we consider our mental condition as regards sensation at any moment, we notice numerous sensations more or less definite, not referred directly to the surface, nor to external objects, such as a feeling of general comfort, free or impeded breath- ing, hunger, thirst, malaise, horror, fatigue and pain. These are all caused by the irritation of ordinary sensory nerves in different localities, and if the irritation of such nerves, by chemical, thermal, mechanical or nutritional stimuli, passes beyond a certain maximum point of intensity the result is pain. Irritation of a nerve, in accord- ance with the law of " peripheral reference of sensation," will cause pain. Sometimes the irritation applied to the trunk of a sensory nerve may be so intense as to destroy its normal function, and loss of sensation or anaesthesia results. If then the stimulus be increased further, pain is excited which is referred to the end of the nerve, with the result of producing what has been called anaesthesia dolorosa. Pains frequently cannot be distinctly located, probably owing to the fact of irradiation in the nerve centres and subsequent reference to areas of the body which are not really the seat of irritations. The intensity of pain depends on the degree of excitability of the sensory nerves, whilst its massiveness depends on the number of nerve fibres affected. The quality of the pain is probably produced by the kind of irritation of the nerve, as affected by the structure of the part and the greater or less continuance of severe pressure. Thus there are piercing, cutting, boring, burning, throbbing, pressing, gnawing, dull and acute varieties of pain. Sometimes the excitability of the cutaneous nerves is so great that a breath of air or a delicate touch may give rise to suffering. This hyperalgia is found in inflammatory affections of the skin. In neuralgia the pain is charac- terized by its character of shooting along the course of the nerve and by severe exacerbations. In many nervous diseases there are disordered sensations referred to the skin, such as alterna- tions of heat and cold, burning, creeping, itching and a feeling as if insects were crawling on the surface (formication). This con- dition is termed parafgia. The term hypalgia is applied to a diminution and analgia to paralysis of pain, as is produced by anaesthetics. Muscular Sense. — The sensory impressions considered in this article are closely related to the so-called muscular sense: or that sense or feeling by which we are aware of the state of the muscles of a limb as regards contraction or relaxation. Some have held that the muscular sense is really due to greater or less stretching of the skin and therefore to irritation of the nerves of that organ. That this is not the case is evident from the fact that disordered move- ments indicating perversion or loss of this sense are not affected by removal of the skin (Claude Bernard). Further, cases in the human being have been noticed where there was an entire loss of cutaneous sensibility whilst the muscular sense was unimpaired. It is also known that muscles possess sensory nerves, giving rise, in certain circumstances, to fatigue, and, when strongly irritated, to the pain of cramp. Muscular sensations are really excited by irritation of sensory nerves passing from the muscles themselves. There are specialized spindle-like bodies in many muscles, and there are organs connected with tendons which are regarded as sensory organs by which pressures are communicated to sensory nerve-filaments. We are thus made conscious of whether or not the muscles are contracted, and of the amount of contraction necessary to overcome resistance, and this knowledge enables us to judge of the amount of voluntary impulse. Loss or diminution of the muscular sense is seen in chorea and especially in locomotor ataxy. Increase of it is rare, but it is seen in the curious affection called anxietas tibiarum, a painful condition of unrest, which leads to a continual change in the position of the limbs (see EQUILIBRIUM). (J- G. M.) 98 TOUL— TOULON TOUL, a garrison town of north-eastern France, capital of an arrondissement in the department of Meurthe-et-Moselle, 21 m. W. of Nancy on the Eastern railway Pop. (1906), town 9523; commune, 13,663. Toul is situated in a plain on the left bank of the Moselle, which skirts the town on the S. and S. E., while on the N. it is bordered by the Marne-Rhine canal. It is princi- pally important as being the centre of a great entrenched camp close to the German frontier. Immediately after the Franco- German War the whole system of frontier defence was revised, and of all the new fortresses of the Meuse and Moselle Toul is perhaps the most formidable. The works were begun in 1874 by the construction of four outlying forts north, north-east and south of the town, but these soon became merely an inner line of defence. The principal defences now lie much farther out on all sides. The west front of the new line of forts occupies a long line of high ground (the watershed of the Meuse and the Moselle), the north front, about 4 m. from Toul, is in undulating country, while facing towards Nancy and forming the chord of the arc which the Moselle describes from Fontenay below to Villey-le-Sec above, is the strong east front, the outlying works of which extend far to the east (Fort Frouard and other works about Nancy) and to the south-east (Pont St Vincent). The south front extends from the Moselle at Villey-le- Sec south-westwards till it meets the southern end of the west front on the high ground overlooking the Meuse valley. The fort at Pagny on the Meuse to the south-west may be considered an outwork of this line of defence. The perimeter of the Toul defences proper is nearly 30 m., and their mean distance from the town about 6 m. Northward, along the Meuse, Toul is connected with the fortress of Verdun by the " Meuse line " of barrier forts, the best known of which are Gironville, Liouville and Troyon. South of Toul the country was purposely left unfortified as far as Epinal (q.v.) and this region is known as the Trouee d'Epinal. The town itself forms an oval within a bastioned enceinte pierced by three gateways. It has two important churches. That of St Etienne (formerly a cathedral) has a choir and transept of the I3th century; the nave and aisles are of the i4th, and the facade, the finest part of the building, of the last half of the isth. The two western towers, which have no spires, reach a height of 246 ft. The two large lateral chapels of the nave are in the Renaissance style. The chief features of the interior are its stained glass and organ loft. South of the church there is a fine cloister of the end of the I3th century which was much damaged at the Revolution. The church of St Gengoult, which dates chiefly from the late I3th or early i4th century, has a facade of the isth century and a cloister in the Flamboyant Gothic style of the i6th century. The h6tel- de-ville occupies a building of the i8th century, once the epis- copal palace, and contains the library and museum. Toul is the seat of a« sub-prefect and has a tribunal of commerce and a communal college among its public institutions. The industries include the manufacture of porcelain; trade is in wine and brandy. Toul (Tullum) is one of the oldest towns of France; originally capital of the Leuci, in the Belgic Confederation, it acquired great importance under the Romans. It was evangelized by St Mansuy in the latter half of the 4th century, and became one of the leading sees of north-east Gaul. After being sacked successively by Goths, Burgundians, Vandals and Huns, Toul was conquered by the Franks in 450. Under the Merovingians it was governed by counts, assisted by elective officers. The bishops became sovereign counts in the loth century, holding only of the emperor, and for a period of 300 years (isth to i6th centuries) the citizens maintained a long struggle against them. Together with Verdun and Metz the town and its domain formed the territory of the Trois-Eveches. Toul was forced to yield for a time to the count of Vaudemont in the I2th century, and twice to the duke of Lorraine in the I5th, and was thrice devastated by the plague in the i6th century. Charles V. made a solemn entry into the town in 1 544, but in the following year, at the instance of the cardinal of Lorraine, it placed itself under the perpetual protection of the kings of France. Henry II. took possession of the Trois-Eveches in 1552, but the territory was not officially incorporated with France till 1648. Henry IV. was received in state in 1603, and in 1637 the parlement of Metz was transferred to Toul. In 1700 Vauban reconstructed the fortifications of the town. In 1790 the bishopric was suppressed and the diocese united to that of Nancy. Toul, which had then no modern defences, capitulated in 1870 after a bombardment of twelve days. TOULON, a seaport and first-class fortress and naval station of France, department of Var, capital of the arrondissement of Toulon, on the Mediterranean, 42 m. E.S.E. of Marseilles. Pop. (1886), 53,941; (1901), 101,602. The bay, which opens to the east, has two divisions, the Grande Rade and the Petite Rade; it is sheltered on the north and west by high hills, closed on the south by the peninsula of capes Sicie and Cepet, and protected on the east by a huge breakwater, the entrance, 1300 ft. wide, being defensible by torpedoes. A ship coming from the open sea must first pass the forts of St Marguerite, of Cap Brun, of Lamalgue and of St Louis to the north, and the battery of the signal station to the south; before reaching the Petite Rade it must further pass under the guns of the battery of Le Salut to the east, and of the forts of Balaguier and L'Aiguillette to the west. The Bay of La Seyne lies west of the Petite Rade, and is defended by the forts of Six-Fours, Napoleon (formerly Fort Caire), and Malbousquet, and the batteries of Les Arenes and Les Gaus. To the north of Toulon rise the defensive works of Mont Faron and Fort Rouge, to the east the forts of Artigues and St Catherine, to the north-east the formidable fort of Coudon, and to the south-east that of Colle Noire, respectively dominating the highway into Italy and the valley of Hyeres with the Bay of Carqueiranne. The town, enlarged to the north under the Second Empire, has on that side a fine modern quarter; but in the old town the streets are for the most part narrow, crooked and dirty, and to their 'insanitary state the cholera epidemic of 1884 was attributed. The chief buildings are the former cathedral of St Marie Majeure (from the 5th century Toulon was a bishop's see till 1801, when it was annexed to that of Frejus), the church of St Louis, the naval and military hospital, with a natural history collection and an anatomical museum attached, a naval school of medicine, a school of hydrography, and large barracks. In 1883-1887 a handsome Renaissance building was erected to accommodate the picture gallery and the town library. The monument in com- memoration of the centenary of the French Revolution was erected in 1890 in the Place de la Liberte, the finest in the new town. The imports are wine, corn, wood, coal, hemp, iron, sugar, coffee and fresh fish; the exports are salt, copper ore, barks for tanning and oils. The principal industries, apart from the arsenal, are shipbuilding, fishing, lace-making and wine-growing. Toulon possesses an observatory and a botanical garden. The interesting buildings and gardens of the hospital of St Mandrier stand on the peninsula of Cape Cepet, and near them is the lazaretto. Toulon is the most important of the French dockyards, and is the headquarters of the Mediterranean fleet. The arsenal, which was created by Louis XIV. — Vauban being the engineer of the works — lies on the north side of the Petite Rade. This is ap- proached from the Grande Rade by passages at the north and south ends of a long breakwater which extends from the direction of Le Mourillon towards the C6pet Peninsula. The water space within the moles amounts to about 150 acres, while the quays approach 4 m. in length. Outside in the Petite Rade is a splendid protected anchorage for a great fleet, the whole being commanded by many forts and batteries. There are four great basins ap- proached from the Petite Rade — the Vielle Darse, to the east, on the side of Le Mourillon; the Darse Vauban, next to it; and the Darse de Castigneau and the Darse Missiessy, farther to the west. In the Darse Vauban are three dry docks, two of them 246 ft. long, with a depth of water on the sill of about 20 ft. ; while the third is 283 ft. long, with a depth of over 24 ft. Three other dry docks are in the Darse de Castigneau, of which one is in two sections. The largest of the docks is 385 ft. long, and the depth of water on the sill in all these docks averages 30 ft. In the Darse Missiessy are TOULOUSE, COUNT OF- -TOULOUSE 99 two dry docks, 426 ft. long, with a depth on the sill of over 32 ft. There are several building slips, and the yard is supplied with a gun foundry and wharf, fitting-shops, boiler works, victualling and other establishments, rolling mills and magazines. Le Mourillon is a subsidiary yard at Toulon, devoted chiefly to ship-building, and possessing large facilities, including five covered slips. The Roman Telo Martius is supposed to have stood near the lazaretto. The town was successively sacked by Goths, Burgundians, Franks and Saracens. During the early middle ages, and till conquered by Charles of Anjou in 1259, it was under lords of its own, and entered into alli- ance with the republics of Marseilles and Aries. St Louis, and especially Louis XII. and Francis I. strengthened its fortifications. It was seized by the emperor Charles V. in 1524 and 1536. Henry IV. founded a naval arsenal at Toulon, which was further strengthened by Richelieu, and Vauban made the new dock, a new enceinte, and several forts and batteries. In 1707 the town was unsuccessfully besieged by the duke of Savoy, Prince Eugene and an English fleet. In 1720 there was an outbreak of the plague. In 1792 after great and sanguinary disorder, the royalists of the town sought the support of the English and Spanish fleets cruising in the neighbourhood. The Convention having replied by putting the town " hors la loi," the inhabitants opened their harbour to the English. The army of the republic now (1793) laid siege to the town, and on this occasion Napoleon Bonaparte first made his name as a soldier. The forts commanding the town having been taken, the English ships retired after setting fire to the arsenal. The conflagration was extinguished by the prisoners, but not before 38 out of a total of 56 vessels had been destroyed. Under the Directory Toulon became the most important French military fort on the Mediterranean; here Napoleon organized the Egyptian campaign, and the expedition against Algiers set out from Toulon in 1830. The fortifications have been strengthened by Napoleon I., Louis Philippe, Napoleon III., and since 1870. Battle of Toulon. — This naval battle took place on the nth of February 1744, near the port of Toulon. A British fleet of thirty sail of the line under command of Thomas Mathews, who combined the offices of naval commander-in-chief in the Mediterranean and envoy to the courts of Sardinia and the Italian princes, engaged a combined force of Spaniards under Don Jos6 Navarrq and French under M. de Court. They were in all twenty-seven sail. The allies left Toulon on the 9th of February. Mathews was at anchor jn Hyeres Bay to watch them, for though France and Great Britain were already engaged as allies on opposite sides in the War of the Austrian Succession, there had been no declaration of war between them. It was known that the allies meant to transfer Spanish troops to Italy to serve against the Austrians, and Mathews had no hesitation in attacking them, Great Britain being at war with Spain. He left Hyeres in very light wind with a heavy westerly swell, and with his fleet in confusion. The British ships were stragT gling over a distance of ten miles, but he put himself between the enemy and Toulon. Mathews was on bad terms with his second in command, Lestock, who commanded the rear division and showed little disposition to support his superior. By the morning of the nth the interval between the van and centre of the British fleet and its rear had increased in the light breezes, and also ^hrough the voluntary or involuntary misapprehension of Mathews' s orders by Lestock. The allies were in a fairly well-formed line, heading to the south, and southward of the British. Mathews pursued, and at 1.30 p.m., when his leading ship was abreast of the centre ship of the allies, he attacked. Some hot fighting took place between Mathews and the Spaniards who formed the allied rear. The action was notable as the last occasion on which an attempt was made to use a fireship on the open sea. One was sent against the " Real " (114), the Spanish flagship, but she was reduced to a sinking state by the fire of the Spaniards, and blew up prematurely, with the loss of all on board. At about five o'clock, the French in the van turned back to support the Spaniards, and Mathews drew off. One Spanish ship, the " Poder " (60), which had surrendered was recaptured, and then set on fire by the allies. Mathews made only a feeble attempt to renew the battle on the following days, and on the 1 3th returned towards the coast of Italy, which he said he had to defend. The British rear division had not come into action at all. The battle, though a miserable affair in itself, is of great impor- tance in naval history because of the pronouncement of doctrine to which it led. Mathews, who was dissatisfied with his subordinate, Lestock, suspended him from command and sent him home for trial. Several of the captains had behaved ill, and the failure of a superior British fleet to gain a success over the allies caused extreme discontent at home. A parliamentary inquiry was opened on the I2th of March 1745, which on the l8th of April, after a confused investigation, ended in a petition to the king to order trials by court-martial of all the officers accused of misconduct. A long series of courts-martial began on the nth of September 1745, and did not end till the 22nd of October 1746. Several captains were sentenced to be dismissed the service. Lestock was acquitted, but Mathews was condemned and sentenced to dis- missal. The finding of the court, which blamed the officer who actually fought, and acquitted the other who did not, puzzled and angered public opinion. The technical points were not appreci- ated by laymen. The real evil done by the condemnation of Mathews was not understood even in the navy. Mathews was blamed on the ground that he had not waited to engage till his van ship was abreast of the van ship of the enemy. By this declara- tion of principle the court confirmed the formal system of naval tactics which rendered all sea-fighting between equal or nearly equal forces so ineffective for two generations. See Beatson, Naval and Military Memoirs, i. 197 seq. (London, 1804), a full and fair narrative. (D. H.) TOULOUSE, LOUIS ALEXANDRE DE BOURBON, COUNT OF (1678-1737), third son of Louis XIV. and Mme de Montespan was born on the 6th of June 1678. At the age of five he was created admiral of France. He distinguished himself during the War of the Spanish Succession, and inflicted a severe defeat on Admiral Rooke near Malaga in 1704. He kept aloof from the intrigues of his sister-in-law, the duchess of Maine, and died on the ist of December 1737. His son, Louis Jean Marie de Bourbon, due de Penthievre (1725-1793), succeeded his father in his posts, among others in that of grand admiral. He served under Marshal de Noailles, and fought brilliantly at Dettingen (1743) and Fontenoy (1745). He then lived in retreat at Rambouillet and Sceaux, protecting men of letters, an'd particularly the poet Florian, and dispensing charity. He lost his son, the prince of Lamballe, in 1768, and survived his daughter-in-law, Louise Marie Therese of Savoy-Carignan, the friend of Marie Antoinette, who was killed by the populace on the 3rd of September 1792. He died on the 4th of March 1793; his daughter and heiress, Louise Marie Adelaide, married Philippe (Egalite), duke of Orleans. TOULOUSE, a city of south-western France, capital of the department of Haute-Garonne, 443 m. S. by W. of Paris by the Orleans railway, and 159 m. S.E. of Bordeaux by the Southern railway. Pop. (1906), town, 125,856; commune, 149,438. Toulouse is situated on the right bank of the Garonne, which here changes a north-easterly for a north-westerly direction, describing a curve round which the city extends in the form of a crescent. On the left bank is the suburb of St Cyprien, which is exposed to the inundations of the river owing to its low situation. The river is spanned by three bridges — that of St Pierre to the north, that of St Michel to the south, and the Pont Neuf in the centre; the last, a fine structure of seven arches was begun in 1543 by Nicolas Bachelier, the sculptor, whose work is to be seen in many of the churches and mansions of the city. East and north of the city runs the Canal du Midi, which here joins the lateral canal of the Garonne. Between the Canal du Midi and the city proper extends a long line of boulevards leading southwards by the Allee St Etienne to the Grand Rond, a promenade whence a series of allees branch out in all directions. South-west the Allee St Michel leads towards the Garonne, and south the Grande Allee towards the Faubourg St Michel. These boulevards take the place of the old city walls. Between them and the canal lie the more modern faubourgs of St Pierre, Arnaud-Bernard, Matabiau, &c. The Place du Capitole, to which streets converge from every side, occupies the centre of the city. Two broad straight thorough- fares of modern construction, the Rue de Metz and the Rue d'Alsace-Lorraine, intersect one another to the south of this point, the first running east from the Pont Neuf, the other running north and south. The other streets are for the most part narrow and irregular. The most interesting building in Toulouse is the church of St Sernin or Saturnin, whom legend represents as the first preacher of the gospel in Toulouse, where he was perhaps martyred about the middle of the 3rd century. The choir, the oldest part of the IOO TOULOUSE present building, was consecrated by Urban II. in 1096. The church is the largest Romanesque basilica in existence, being 375 ft. from east to west and 210 ft. in extreme breadth. The nave (i2th and I3th centuries) has double aisles. Four pillars, support- ing the central tower, are surrounded by heavy masonry, which somewhat spoils the general harmony of the interior. In the southern transept is the " portail des comtes," so named because near it lie the tombs of William Taillefer, Ppns, and other early counts of Toulouse. The little chapel in which these tombs (as- cribed to the nth century) are found was restored by the capitols of Toulouse in 1648. Another chapel contains a Byzantine Christ of late nth-century workmanship. The choir (llth and I2th centuries) ends in an apse, or rather chevet, surrounded by a range of columns, marking off an aisle, which in its turn opens into five chapels. The stalls are of 16th-century work and grotesquely carved. Against the northern wall is an ancient table d'autel, which an nth-century inscription declares to have belonged to St Sernin. In the crypts are many relics, which, however, were robbed of their gold and silver shrines during the Revolution. On the south there is a fine outer porch in the Renaissance style; it is surmounted by a representation of the Ascension in Byzantine style. The central tower (l3th century) consists of five storeys, of which the two highest are of later date, but harmonize with the three lower ones. A restoration of St Sernin was carried out in the igth century by Viollet-le-Duc. The cathedral, dedicated to St Stephen, dates from three different epochs. The walls of the nave belong to a Romanesque cathedral of the nth century, but its roof dates from the first half of the J3th century. The choir was begun by Bishop Bertrand de 1'Ile (c. 1272), who wished to build another church in place of the old one. This wish was unfulfilled and the original nave, the axis of which is to the south of that of the choir, remains. The choir was burned in 1690 but restored soon after. It is surrounded by seven- teen chapels, finished by the cardinal d'Orleans, nephew of Louis XI., about the beginning of the l6th century, and adorned with glass dating from the 1 5th to the 1 7th century. The western gate, flanked by a huge square tower, was constructed by Peter du Moulin, archbishop of Toulouse, from 1439 to 1451. It has been greatly battered, and presents but a poor approximation to its ancient beauty. Over this gate, which was once ornamented with the statues of St Sernin, St Exuperius and the twelve apostles, as well as those of the two brother archbishops of Toulouse, Denis (1423-1439) and Peter du Moulin, there is a beautiful 13th-century rose-window, whose centre, however, is not in a perpendicular line with the point of the Gothic arch below. Among other remarkable churches may be noticed Notre-Dame de la Daurade, near the Pont Neuf, built on the site of a gth-century Benedictine abbey and reconstructed towards the end of the i8th century; and Notre-Dame de la Dalbade; perhaps existing in the nth, but in its present form dating from the l6th century, with a fine Renaissance portal. The church of the Jacobins, held by Viollet-le-Duc to be " one of the most beautiful brick churches constructed in the middle ages," was built towards the end of the 1 3th century, and consists of a nave divided into two aisles by a range of columns. The chief exterior feature is a beautiful octagonal belfry. The church belonged to a Dominican monastery, of which part of the cloister, the refectory, the chapter-hall and the chapel also remain and are utilized by the lycee. Of the other secular buildings the most noteworthy are the capitole and the museum. The capitole has a long Ionic fagade built from 1750 to 1760. The theatre is situated in the left wing. Running along almost the whole length of the first floor is the salle des illustres adorned with modern paintings and sculptures relating to the history of the town. The museum (opened in 1795) occupies, besides a large modern building, the church, cloisters and other buildings of an old Augustinian convent. It contains pictures and a splendid collection of antiquities, notably a series of statues and busts of Roman emperors and others and much Romanesque sculpture. There is an auxiliary museum in the old college of St Raymond. The natural history museum is in the Jardin des Plantes. The law courts stand on the site of the old Chateau Narbonais, once the residence of the counts of Toulouse and later the seat of the parlement of Toulouse. Near by is a statue of the jurist Jacques Cujas, born at Toulouse. Toulouse is singularly rich in mansions of the i6th and 1 7th centuries. Among these may be mentioned the Hotel Bernuy, a fine Renaissance building now used by the lycee and the H6tel d'Ass6zat of the same period, now the property of the Academic des Jeux Floraux (see below), and of the learned societies of the city. In the court of the latter there is a statue of C16mence Isaure, a lady of Toulouse, traditionally supposed to have enriched the Acade'mie by a bequest in the isth century. The Maison de Pierre has an elaborate stone fagade of 1612. Toulouse is the seat of an archbishopric, of a court of appeal, a court of assizes and of a prefect. It is also the headquarters of the XVII. army corps and centre of an educational circum- scription (academic). There are tribunals of first instance and of commerce, a board of trade-arbitration, a chamber of commerce and a branch of the Bank of France. The educational institutions include faculties of law, medicine and pharmacy, science and letters, a Catholic institute with faculties of theology and 'letters, higher and lower ecclesiastical seminaries, lycees and training colleges for both sexes, and schools of veterinary science, fine arts and industrial sciences and music. Toulouse, the principal commercial and industrial cenitre of Languedoc, has important markets for horses, wine, grain, flowers, leather, oil and farm produce. Its pastry and other delicacies are highly esteemed. Its industrial establishments include the national tobacco factory, flour-mills, saw-mills, engineering work- shops and factories for farming implements, bicycles, vehicles, artificial manures, paper, boots and shoes, and flour pastes. TOLOSA, chief town of the Volcae Tectosages, does not seem to have been a place of great importance during the early centuries of the Roman rule in Gaul, though in 106 B.C. the pillage of its temple by Q. S. Cepio, afterwards routed by the Cimbri, gave rise to the famous Latin proverb habet aurum Tolosanum, in allusion to ill-gotten gains. It possessed a circus and an amphitheatre, but its most remarkable remains are to be found on the heights of Old Toulouse (vetus Tolosa) some 6 or 7 m. to the east, where huge accumulations of broken pottery and fragments of an old earthen vail mark the site of an ancient settlement. The numerous coins that have been discovered on the same spot do not date back farther than the 2nd century B.C., and seem to indicate the position of a Roman manufacturing centre then beginning to occupy the Gallic hill-fortress that, in earlier days, had in times of peril been the stronghold of the native tribes dwelling on the river bank. Tolosa does not seem to have been a Roman colony; but its importance must have increased greatly towards the middle of the 4th century. It is to be found entered in more than one itinerary dating from about this time; and Ausonius, in his Ordo nobilium urbium, alludes to it in terms implying that it then had a large population. In 419 it was made the capital of his kingdom by Wallia, king of the Visigoths, under whom or whose successors it became the seat of the great Teutonic kingdom of the West-Goths — a kingdom that within fifty years had extended itself from the Loire to Gibraltar and from the Rhone to the Atlantic. On the defeat of Alaric II. (507) Toulouse fell into the hands of Clovis, who carried away the royal treasures to Angouleme. Under the Merovingian kings it seems to have remained the greatest city of southern Gaul, and is said to have been governed by dukes or counts dependent on one or other of the rival kings descended from the great founder of the Prankish monarchy. It figures pro- minently in the pages of Gregory of Tours and Sidonius Apollinaris. About 628 Dagobert erected South Aquitaine into a kingdom for his brother Charibert, who chose Toulouse as his capital. For the next eighty years its history is obscure, till we reach the days of Charles Martel, when it was besieged by Sema, the leader of the Saracens from Spain (c. 715-720), but delivered by Eudes, " princeps Aquitaniae," in whom later writers discovered the ancestor of all the later counts of Toulouse. Modern criticism, however, has discredited this genealogy; and the real history of Toulouse recommences in 780 or 781, when Charlemagne appointed his little son Louis king of Aquitaine, with Toulouse for his chief city. During the minority of the young king his tutor Chorson ruled at Toulouse with the title of duke or count. Being deposed at the Council of Worms (790), he was succeeded by William Courtnez, the traditional hero of southern France, who in 806 retired to his newly founded monastery at Gellone, where he died in 812. In the unhappy days of the emperor Louis the Pious and his children Toulouse suffered in common with the rest of western Europe. It was besieged by Charles the Bald in 844, and taken four years later by the Normans, who in 843 had sailed up the Garonne as far as its walls. About 852 Raymond I., count of Quercy, succeeded his brother Fridolo as count of Rouergue and Toulouse; it is from this noble that all the later counts of Toulouse trace their descent. Raymond I.'s grandchildren divided their parents' estates; of these Ray- mond II. (d. 924) became count of Toulouse, and Ermengaud, count of Rouergue, while the hereditary titles of Gothia, Quercy and Albi were shared between them. Raymond II. 's grandson, William Taillefer (d. c. 1037), married Emma of Provence, and TOUNGOO— TOUP, J. 101 handed down part of that lordship to his younger son Bertrand.1 William's elder son Pons left two children, of whom William IV. succeeded his father in Toulouse, Albi, Quercy, &c.; while the younger, Raymond IV. of St Gilles (c. 1066), made him- self master of the vast possessions of the counts of Rouergue, married his cousin the heiress of Provence, and about 1085 began to rule the immense estates of his elder brother, who was still living. From this time the counts of Toulouse were the greatest lords in southern France. Raymond IV., the hero of the first crusade, assumed the formal titles of marquis of Provence, duke of Narbonne and count of Toulouse. While Raymond was away in the Holy Land, Toulouse was seized by William IX., duke of Aquitaine, who claimed the city in right of his wife Philippa, the daughter of William IV., but was unable to hold it long (1098-1100). Raymond's son and successor Bertrand followed his father's example and set out for the Holy Land in 1109, leaving his great estates at his death to his brother Alphonse Jourdain. The rule of this prince was disturbed by the ambition of William IX. and his grand-daughter Eleanor, who urged her husband Louis VII. to support her claims to Toulouse by war. On her divorce from Louis and her marriage with Henry II., Eleanor's claims passed on to this monarch, who at last forced Raymond V. to do him homage for Toulouse in 1173. Raymond V., the patron of the troubadours, died in 1194, and was succeeded by his son Raymond VI., under whose rule Languedoc was desolated by the crusaders of Simon de Montfort, who occupied Toulouse in 1215, but lost his life in besieging it in 1218. Raymond VII., the son of Raymond VI. and Princess Joan of England, succeeded his father in 1222, and died in 1249, leaving an only daughter Joan, married to Alfonso the brother of Louis IX. On the death of Alfonso and Joan in 1271 the vast inheritance of the counts of Toulouse lapsed to the Crown.2 From the middle years of the izth century the people of Toulouse seem to have begun to free themselves from the most oppressive feudal dues. An act of Alphonse Jourdain (1141) exempts them from the tax on salt and wine; and in 1152 we have traces of a " commune consilium Tolosae " making police ordinances in its own name " with the advice of Lord Raymond, count of Toulouse, duke of Narbonne, and marquis of Provence." This act is witnessed by six " capitularii," four duly appointed judges (judices constiluti), and two advocates. Twenty-three years later there are twelve capitularii or consuls, six for the city and six for its suburbs, all of them elected and sworn to do justice in whatever municipal matters were brought before them. In 1222 their number was increased to twenty-four; but they were forbidden to touch the city property, which was to remain in the charge of certain " communarii " chosen by themselves. Early in the i4th century the consuls took the name of " domini de capitulo," or, a little later, that of " capitulum nobilium." From the I3th century the consuls met in their own house, the " palatium communitatis Tolosae " or h6tel-de-ville. In the i6th century a false derivation changed the ancient consuls (domini de capitulo) into the modern " capitouls " (domini cafritolii tolosani), a barbarous etymology which in its turn has, in the present century, transformed the old assembly house of Toulouse into the capitole. The 1 About 975 there was a partition of the estates which William Taillefer and his cousin Raymond II. of Auvergne held in common, — Albi, Quercy, &c., falling to William, and Gothia, &c., to Raymond. 1 List of the counts of Toulouse: Chorson. .... 778-790 Raymond III. . . 924-c. 950 William I. 700-806 William Taillefer c. 950-6. 1037 Raymond Rafinel c 1 7 812-818 Pons 1037-1060 Berenger 818-835 William IV. . . io6o-c. 1093 Bernard I. . 835-844 Raymond IV. 1093-1096 Warin. . . 844-845 Bertrand . 1096-1109 William II. . 845-850 Alphonse Jourdain 1109-1148 Fridolo . 850-852 Raymond V. . 1148-1194 Raymond I. . 852-864 Raymond VI. 1194-1222 Bernard . 864-875 Raymond VII. 1222-1249 Eudo 875-018 Alfonso and Joan 1249-1271 Raymond II. 9i8-c. 924 parlement of Toulouse was established as a permanent court in 1443. Louis XI. transferred it to Montpellier in 1467, but restored it to Toulouse before the close of the next year. This parlement was for Languedoc and southern France what the parlement of Paris was for the north. During the religious wars of the i6th century the Protestants of the town made two unsuccessful attempts to hand it over to the prince de Conde. After St Bartholomew's Day (1572) 30x3 of the party were massacred. Towards the end of the i6th century, during the wars of the League, the parlement was split up into three different sections, sitting respectively at Carcassonne or Beziers, at Castle Sarrasin, and at Toulouse. The three were reunited in 1 596. Under Francis I. it began to persecute heretics, and in 1619 rendered itself notorious by burning the philosopher Vanini. In 1762 Jean Calas, an old man falsely accused of murdering his eldest son to prevent him becoming a Reman Catholic, was broken on the wheel. By the exertions of Voltaire his character was afterwards rehabilitated. The university of Toulouse owes its origin to the action of Gregory IX., who in 1229 bound Raymond VII. to maintain four masters to teach theology and eight others for canon law, grammar, and the liberal arts. Civil law and medicine were taught only a few years later. The famous " Floral Games " of Toulouse, in which the poets of Languedoc contended (May 1-3) for the prize of the golden amaranth and other gold or silver flowers, given at the expense of the city, were instituted in 1323-1324. The Academic des Jeux Floraux still awards these prizes for compositions in poetry and prose. In 1814 the duke of Wellington defeated Marshal Soult to the north-east of the town. See L. Ariste and L. Brand, Histoire populaire de Toulouse depuis les origines jusqu'ti ce jour (Toulouse, 1898). This work contains an exhaustive bibliography. TOUNGOO, or TAUNG-NGU, a town and district in the Tenas- serim division of Lower Burma. The town is situated on the right bank of the river Sittang, 166 m. by rail N. from Rangoon. Pop. (1001), 15,837. From the I4th to the i6th century it was the capital of an independent kingdom. After the second Burmese War it was an important frontier station, but the troops were withdrawn in 1893. The district of Toungoo has an area of 6172 sq. m.; pop. (1901), 279,315, showing an increase of 32% in the preceding decade. Three mountain ranges traverse the district — the Pegu Yomas, the Karen, and the Nat-taung or " Great Watershed " — all of which have a north and south direction, and are covered for the most part with dense forest. The Pegu Yomas have a general elevation of from 800 to 1 200 ft., while the central range averages from 2000 to 3000 ft. The rest of Toungoo forms the upper portion of the valley of the Sittang, the only large river in the district, the chief tributaries of which are the Shwa, Hkabaung, Hpyu Thank-ye-Kat and Yank-thua-wa, all navigable for a great portion of their course. Limestone appears in various places, and in the north-east a light grey marble is quarried for lime. The rivers form the chief means of communication during the rainy season. The rainfall in 1905 was 80-30 in. There are 14 railway stations in the district. Rice is the staple crop; there are promising plantations of coffee and rubber. Forests cover more than 5000 sq. m., of which 1337 sq. m. have been reserved, yielding a large revenue. TOUP, JONATHAN [JOANNES TOTJPIUS] (1713-1785), English classical scholar and critic, was born at St Ives in Cornwall, and was educated at a private school and Exeter College, Oxford. Having taken orders, he became rector of St Martin's Exeter, where he died on the igth of January 1785. Toup established his reputation by his Emendationes in Suidam (1760-1766, followed in 1775 by a supplement) and his edition of Longinus (1778), including notes and emendations by Ruhnken. The excellence of Toup's scholarship was " known to the learned throughout Europe " (so epitaph on the tablet in the church of East Looe set up by the delegates of the Clarendon Press), but his overbearing manner and extreme self-confidence made him many enemies. IO2 TOURACOU— TOURAINE TOURACOU, the name, evidently already in use, under which in 1743 G. Edwards figured a pretty African bird,1 and presumably that applied to it in Guinea, whence it had been brought alive. It is the Cuculus persa of Linnaeus, and Turacus (After Schlegel.) White-Crested Tburacou (Turacus albicristatus). or Corythaix persa of later authors. Cuvier in 1799 or 1800 Latinized its native name (adopted in the meanwhile by both French and German writers) as above, for which barbarous term J. K. W. Illiger, in 1811, substituted a more classical word. In 1788 Isert described and figured (Beobacht. Gesellsch. naturf. Freunde, iii. 16-20, pi. i) a bird, also from Guinea, which he called Musophaga violated. Its affinity to the original Touracou was soon recognized, and both forms have been joined by modern systematists in the family Musophagidae, commonly Englished Plantain-eaters or Touracous. To take first the Plantain-eaters proper, or the genus Musophaga, of which only two species are known. One, about the size of a crow, is comparatively common in museums, and has the horny base of its yellow bill prolonged backwards over the forehead in a kind of shield. The top of the head and the primaries, except their outer edge and tip, are deep crimson ; a white streak extends behind the eye; and the rest of the plumage is glossy purple. The second species, M. rossae, which is rare, chiefly differs by wanting the white eye-streak. Then of the Touracous — the species origin- ally described is about the size of a jay, and has the head, crest (which is vertically compressed and tipped with red), neck and breast of grass-green, varied by two white streaks — one, from the gape to the upper part of the crimson orbit, separated by a black patch from the other, which runs beneath and behind the eye. The wing-coverts, lower part of the back, and tail are of steel-purple, the primaries deep crimson, edged and tipped with bluish black. Over a dozen other congeneric species, more or less resembling this, have been described, and all inhabit some district of Africa. One, found in the Cape Colony and Natal, where it is known as the " Lory " (cf. xy. 7, note i), though figured by Daubenton and others, was first differentiated in 1841 by Strickland (Ann. Nat. History, vii. 33) as Turacus albicristatus — its crest having a con- spicuous white border, while the steel-purple of T. persa is replaced by a rich and glossy bluish green of no less beauty. In nearly all the species of this genus the nostrils are almost completely hidden by the frontal feathers; but there are two others in which, though closely allied, this is not the case, and some systematists would place them in a separate genus Gallirex; while another species, the giant of the family, has been moved into a third genus as Cory- thaeola cristata. This differs from any of the foregoing by the absence of the crimson coloration of the primaries, and seems to lead to another group, Schizorrhis, in which the plumage is of a still plainer type, and, moreover, the nostrils here are not only exposed but in the form of a slit, instead of being oval as in all the 1 Apparently the first ornithologist to make the bird known was Albin, who figured it in 1738 from the life, yet badly, as " The Crown-bird of Mexico." He had doubtless been misinformed as to its proper country; but Touracous were called " Crown-birds " by the Europeans in West Africa, as witness Bosnian's Description of the Coast of Guinea (2nd ed., 1721), p. 251, and W. Smith's Voyage to Guinea (1745), p. 149, though the name was also given to the crowned cranes, Balearica. rest. This genus contains about half-a-dozen species, one of which, S. concolor, is the Grey Touracou of the colonists in Natal, and is of an almost uniform slaty brown. A good deal has been written about these birds, which form the subject of a beautiful monograph — De Toerako's afgebeld en beschreven — by Schlegel and Westerman, brought out at Amsterdam in 1860; while further information is contained in an elaborate essay by Schalow (Journ. f. ornilhologie, 1886, pp. 1-77). Still, much remains to be made known as to their distribution throughout Africa and their habits. They seem to be all fruit-eaters, and to frequent the highest trees, seldom coming to the ground. Very little can be confidently asserted as to their nidification, but at least one species of Schizorrhis is said to make a rough nest and therein lay tnree eggs of a pale blue colour. An extraordinary peculiarity attends the crimson coloration which adorns the primaries of so many of the Musophagidae. So long ago as 1818, Jules Verreaux observed (Proc. Zool. Society, 1871, p. 40) that in the case of T. albicristatus this beautiful hue vanishes on exposure to heavy rain and reappears only after some interval of time and when the feathers are dry.1 The Musophagidae form a distinct family, of which the Cuculidae are the nearest allies, the two being associated to torm the Cuculine as compared with the Psittacine division of Cuculiform birds (see BIRD and PARROT). T. C. Eyton pointed out (Ann. Nat. History, 3rd series, vol. ii. p. 458) a feature possessed in common by the latter and the Musophagidae, in the " process attached to the anterior edge of the ischium," which he likened to the so-called " marsupial " bones of Didelphian mammals. J. T. Reinhardt has also noticed (Vidensk. meddels. naturhist. forening, 1871, pp. 326-341) another Cuculine character offered by the os uncina- tum affixed to the lower side of the ethmoid in the Plantain-eaters and Touracous; but too much dependence must not be placed on that, since a similar structure is presented by the frigate-bird (q.v.) and the petrels (q.v.). A corresponding process seems also to be found in Trogon (q.v.). The bill of nearly all the species of Muso- phagidae is curiously serrated or denticulated along the margin and the feet have the outer toe reversible, but usually directed backwards. No member of the family is found outside of the continental portion of the Ethiopian region. (A. N.) TOURAINE, an old province in France, which stretched along both banks of the Loire in the neighbourhood of Tours, the river dividing it into Upper and Lower Touraine. It was bounded on the N. by Orleanais, W. by Anjou and Maine, S. by Poitou and E. by Berry, and it corresponded approximately to the modern department of Indre et Loire. Touraine took its name from the Turones, the tribe by which it was inhabited at the time of Caesar's conquest of Gaul. They were unwarlike, and offered practically no resistance to the invader, though they joined in the revolt of Vercingetorix in A.D. 52. The capital city, Caesarodunum, which was built on the site of the eastern part of the present city of Tours, was made by Valentinian the metropolis of the 3rd Lyon- naise, which included roughly the later provinces of Touraine, Brittany, Maine and Anjou. Christianity seems to have been introduced into Touraine not much earlier than the beginning of the 4th century, although tradition assigns St Gatien, the first bishop of Tours, to the 3rd. The most famous of its apostles was St Martin (fl. 375-400), who founded the abbey of Marmoutier, near Tours, and whose tomb in the city became a celebrated shrine. Tours was besieged by the Visigoths in 428, and though it offered a successful resistance on this occasion it was included fifty years later in the territory of the Visigoths. The Tourangeans refused to adopt the Arian heresy of their conquerors, and this difference in religion materially assisted in 507 the conquest of the province by Clovis, whose orthodoxy was guaranteed by the miraculous intervention of St Martin. St Clotilda, wife of Clovis, spent the last years of her life in retreat at Tours. The possession of Touraine was constantly the subject of dispute between the Merovingian princes, and the province enjoyed no settled peace until the reign of Charlemagne. He established Alcuin as abbot of St Martin of Tours, and under his auspices the school of Tours became one of the chief seats of learning in 2 The fact of this colouring matter being soluble in water was incidentally mentioned at a meeting of the Zoological Society of London by W. B. Tegetmeier, and brought to the notice of Professor A. H. Church, who, after experiment, published in 1868 (Student and Intellectual Observer, i. 161-168) an account of it as " Turacin, a new animal pigment containing copper." Further information on the subject was given by Monteiro (Ghent. News, xxviii. 201; Quart. Journ. Science, 2nd series, vol. iv. p. 132). The property is possessed by the crimson feathers of all the birds of the family. TOURCOING— TOURMALINE 103 the middle ages. In the gth century Tours also became the ecclesiastical metropolis of Brittany, Maine and Anjou, and when the empire was divided by Louis the Pious into various districts or missatica, Tours was the centre of one of these, the boundaries of which corresponded roughly with those of the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the city. Touraine suffered from the invasions of the Northmen, who massacred the monks of Marmoutier in 853, but never pillaged Tours. The administration of Touraine was entrusted, from Merovingian times onward, to counts appointed by the crown. The office became hereditary in 940 or 941 with Thibault the Old or the " Tricheur." His son Odo I. was attacked by Fulk the Black, count of Anjou, and despoiled of part of his territory. His grandson Thibault III., who refused homage to Henry I., king of France, in 1044, was entirely dispossessed by Geoffrey of Anjou, called the Hammer (d. 1060). The 7th count, Fulk (d. 1109), ruled both Anjou and Touraine, and the county of Touraine remained under the domination of the counts of Anjou (q.v.) until Henry II. of England deprived his brother Geoffrey of Touraine by force of arms. Henry II. carried out many improvements, but peace was destroyed by the revolt of his sons. Richard Coeur de Lion, in league with Philip Augustus, had seized Touraine, and after his death Arthur of Brittany was recognized as count. In 1204 it was united to the French crown, and its cession was formally acknowledged by King John at Chinon in 1214. Philip appointed Guillaume des Roches hereditary seneschal in 1204, but the dignity was ceded to the crown in 1312. Touraine was granted from time to time to princes of the blood as an appanage of the crown of France. In 1328 it was held by Jeanne of Burgundy, queen of France; by Philip, duke of Orleans, in 1344; and in 1360 it was made a peerage duchy on behalf of Philip the Bold, afterwards duke of Burgundy. It was the scene of dispute between Charles, afterwards Charles VII., and his mother, Isabel of Bavaria, who was helped by the Burgundians. After his expulsion from Paris by the English Charles spent much of his time in the chateaux of Touraine, although his seat of government was at Bourges. He bestowed the duchy successively on his wife Mary of Anjou, on Archibald Douglas and on Louis III. of Anjou. It was the dower of Mary Stuart as the widow of Francis II. The last duke of Touraine was Francis, duke of Alencon, who died in 1584. Plessis-les-Tours had been the favourite residence of Louis XL, who granted many privileges to the town of Tours, and increased its prosperity by the establishment of the silk-weaving industry. The reformed religion numbered many adherents in Touraine, who suffered in the massacres following on the conspiracy of Amboise; and, though in 1562 the army of Conde pillaged the city of Tours, the marshal of St Andre reconquered Touraine for the Catholic party. Many Huguenots emigrated after the massacre of St Bartholomew, and after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes the silk industry, which had been mainly in the hands of the Huguenots, was almost destroyed. This migration was one of the prime causes of the extreme poverty of the province in the next century. At the Revolution the nobles of Touraine made a declaration expressing their sympathy with the ideas of liberty and fraternity. Among the many famous men who were born within its boundaries are Jean le Meingre Boucicaut, marshal of France, Beroalde de Verville, author of the Moyen de parvenir, Rabelais, Cardinal Richelieu, C. J. Avisseau, the potter (1796-1861), the novelist Balzac and the poet Alfred de Vigny. See the quarterly publication of the Memoires of the Societe archeologique de Touraine (1842, &c.) which include a Dictionnaire geographique, historique et biographique (6 vols., 1878-1884), by J. X. Carr6 de Busserolle. There are histories of Touraine and its monuments by Chalmel (4 vols. Paris, 1828), by S. Bellanger (Paris, 1845), by Bourrasse1 (1858). See also Dupin de Saint Andre1, Hist, du protestantisme en Touraine (Paris, 1885); T. A. Cook, Old Touraine (2 vols. London, 1892). TOURCOING, a manufacturing town of northern France in the department of Nord, less than a mile from the Belgian frontier, and 8 m. N.N.E. of Lille on the railway to Ghent. Pop. (1906), 62,694 (commune, 81,671), of whom about one-third are natives of Belgium. Tourcoing is prac- tically one with Roubaix to the south, being united thereto by a tramway and a branch of the Canal de Roubaix. The public institutions comprise a tribunal of commerce, a board of trade arbitrators, a chamber of commerce, an exchange and a condi- tioning house for textiles. Together with Roubaix, Tourcoing ranks as one of the chief textile centres of France. Its chief industry is the combing, spinning and twisting of wool carried on in some eighty factories employing between 10,000 and 12,000 workpeople. The spinning and twisting of cotton is also important. The weaving establishments produce woollen and mixed woollen and cotton fabrics together with silk and satin drapery, swanskins, jerseys and other fancy goods. The making of velvet pile carpets and upholstering materials is a speciality of the town. To these industries must be added those of dyeing, the manufacture of hosiery, of the machinery and other apparatus used in the textile factories and of soap. Famed since the i2th century for its woollen manufactures, Tourcoing was fortified by the Flemings in 1477, when LouisXI. of France disputed the inheritance of Charles the Bold with Mary of Burgundy, but in the same year was taken and pillaged by the French. In 1794 the Republican army, under Generals Moreau and Souham, gained a decisive victory over the Austrians, the event being commemorated by a monument in the public garden. The inhabitants, 18,000 in 1789, were reduced by the French Revolution to 10,000. TOURMALINE, a mineral of much interest to the physicist on account of its optical and electrical properties; it is also of some geological importance as a rock-constituent (see SCHORL), whilst certain transparent varieties have economic value as gem-stones. The name is probably a corruption of turmali, or toramalli, the native name applied to tourmaline and zircon in Ceylon, whence specimens of the former mineral were brought to Europe by the Dutch in 1703. The green tourmaline of Brazil had, however, been known here much earlier; and coarse varieties of the mineral had passed for cen- turies under the German name of Schorl, an old mining word of uncertain origin, possibly connected with the old German Schor (refuse), in allusion to the occurrence of the mineral with the waste of the tin-mines. The German village of Schorlau may have taken its name from the mineral. It has been suggested that the Swedish form skorl has possible connexion with the word sko'r, brittle. Tourmaline crystallizes in the rhombohedral division of the hexagonal system. The crystals have generally a prismatic habit, the prisms being longitudinally striated or even channelled. Trigonal prisms are characteristic, so that a transverse section becomes triangular or often nine-sided. By combination of several prisms the crystals may become sub-cylindrical. The crystals when doubly terminated are often hemimorphic or present dissimilar forms at the opposite ends; thus the hexagonal prisms in fig. I are terminated at one end by rhombohedral faces, o, P, and at the other by the basal plane k'. Doubly- terminated crystals, however, are com- paratively rare ; the crystals being usually attached at one end to the matrix. It is notable that prismatic crystals of tour- maline have in some cases been curved and fractured transversely; the displaced fragments having been cemented together by deposition of fresh mineral matter. Tourmaline is not infre- quently columnar, acicular or fibrous; and the fibres may radiate from a centre so as to form the so-called " tourmaline suns." Crystals of tourmaline present no distinct cleavage, but break with a sub-conchpidal fracture; and whilst the general lustre of the mineral is vitreous, that of the fractured surface is rather pitchy. The hardness is slightly above that of quartz (7). The specific gravity varies according to chemical composition, that of the colourless varieties being about 3, whilst in schorl it may rise to 3^2. Tourmaline has a great range of colour, and in many cases the crystals are curiously parti-coloured. Occasionally, though rarely, the mineral is colourless, and is then known as achroite, a name proposed by R. Hermann in 1845, and derived from the Greek SXPOOS (uncoloured). Red tourmaline, which when of fine colour is the most valued of all varieties, is known as rubellite (?.».). Green tourmaline is by no means uncommon, but the blue is rather rare FIG. i. 104 TOURNAI and is distinguished by the name indigolite, generally written indi- colite. Brown is a common colour, and black still more common, this being the usual colour of schorl, or common coarse tourmaline. Thin splinters of schorl may, however, be blue or brown by transmitted light. The double refraction of tourmaline is strong. The mineral is optically negative, the ordinary index being about 1-64, and the extraordinary 1-62. Coloured tourmalines are intensely pleochroic, the ordinary ray, which vibrates perpendicular to the principal axis, being much more strongly absorbed than the extraordinary; hence a slice cut in the direction of the principal or optic axis trans- mits sensibly only the extraordinary ray, and may consequently be used as a polarizing medium. The brown tourmaline of Ceylon and Brazil is best adapted for this purpose, but the green is also used. Two plates properly mounted form the instrument used by opticians for testing spectacle-lenses, and are known as the " tourmaline tongs." In order to secure the best colour-effect when used as a gem-stone, the tourmaline should be cut with the table parallel to the optic axis. It was in tourmaline that the phenomenon of pyroelectricity was first observed. On being heated in peat ashes its attractive power was observed by the Dutch, in the early part of the l8th century; and this curious character obtained for it the name of aschtrekker, or ash-drawer. J. R. Hatty first pointed out the relation of pyroelec- tricity with hemimorphism. Tourmaline is also piezoelectric, that is, it becomes electric by pressure. If a crystal be subjected to pressure along the optic axis, it behaves as though it were contracting by reduction of temperature. The mineral may also be rendered electric by friction, and retains the charge for a long time. Tourmaline is a boro-silicate of singularly complex composition. Indeed the word tourmaline is sometimes regarded as the name of a group of isomorphous minerals rather than that of a definite species. Numerous analyses have been made, and the results discussed by a large number of authorities. In the view of S. L. Penfield and H. W. Foote all tourmaline may be derived from a boro-silicic acid of the formula HnB^iiOu. It is believed that the hydrogen is present as hydroxyl, and that this may be partially replaced by fluorine. The tourmaline acid has probably the con- stitution Hi8(B-OH)jSi4Oi9. Nine atoms of hydrogen are replaced by three of aluminium, and the remaining nine in part by other metals. Lithium is present in red tourmaline; magnesium dominates in brown; iron, manganese and sometimes chromium are found in green ; and much iron occurs in the black varieties. Four groups are sometimes recognized, characterized by the presence of (l) lithium, (2) ferrous iron, (3) ferric iron and (4) magnesium. Tourmaline occurs commonly in granite, greisen, gneiss and crystalline schists. In many cases it appears to have been formed by pneumatolysis, or the action on the rocks of heated vapours containing boron and fluorine, as in many tin-bearing districts, where tourmaline is a characteristic mineral. Near the margin of a mass of granite the rock often becomes schorlaceous or tourma- liniferous, and may pass into " tourmaline-rock," which is usually an aggregate of tourmaline and quartz. Tourmaline is an essential constituent of the west of England rocks called luxullianite (luxuly- anite) and trowlesworthite. It occurs embedded in certain meta- morphic limestones, where it is possibly due to fumarolic action. Microscopic crystals are common in clay-slate. By resistance to decomposition, tourmaline often survives the disintegration of the matrix, and thus passes into sands, clays, marls and other sedimentary deposits. Many of the finest crystals of tourmaline occur in druses in granitic rocks, such as those of San Piero in Elba, where some of the pale pink and green prisms are tipped with black, and have consequently been called nigger-heads. Lepidolite is a common associate of tourmaline, as at Rozena in Moravia. Tourmaline occurs, with corundum, in the dolomite of Campolongo, in canton Ticino, Switzerland. Fine black crystals, associated with apatite and quartz, were formerly found in granite at Chudleigh, near Bovey Tracey in Devonshire. The Russian localities for tourmaline are mentioned under RUBELLITE. Most of the tourmaline cut for jewelry comes from the gem-gravels of Ceylon. The green tour- maline has generally a yellowish or olive-green colour, and is known as " Ceylon chrysolite." Fine green crystals are found in Brazil, notably in the topaz-locality of Minas Novas; and when of vivid colour they have been called " Brazilian emeralds." Green tour- maline is a favourite ecclesiastical stone in South America Blue tourmaline occurs with the green ; this variety is found also at Ut6 in Sweden (its original locality) and notably near Hazaribagh in Bengal. Certain kinds of mica occasionally contain flat crystals of tourmaline between the cleavage-planes. Many localities in the United States are famous for tourmaline. Magnificent specimens h